Unit 10: ALL TERMS

Attribution

The process of explaining the causes of people’s behavior, including one’s own, either by crediting an external situation or a person’s internal disposition.

Situational attribution

attributing behavior to the situation (external factors)

Dispositional attribution

attributing behavior to the person's disposition and personality traits (internal factors)

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes while attributing other people's behaviors to internal causes.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to over-attribute the behavior of others to internal (dispositional) factors, such as personal disposition (personality traits).

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal factors (disposition) and one’s failures to external factors (situation).  Often, this comes into play when one commits the fundamental attribution error.

False-Consensus Effect

Tendency to overestimate how many people share our choices, values & judgments, and perceive alternate responses are rare

Just-World Phenomenon

The tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Prosocial Behavior

Exhibiting behavior that benefits one or more other people.

Social Reciprocity Norm

Social expectation in which we feel pressured to help others if they have already done something for us.

Social Responsibility Norm

Societal rule that tells people they should help others who need help even if they may not repay us.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help someone in need when other people are present, compared to when they are alone

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Social Exchange Theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Diffusion of Responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

Explanatory Style

a person's habitual way of explaining events (ex. optimistic (positive) or pessimistic (negative))

Optimistic Explanatory style

accounting for positive events or situations with external, unstable, and specific explanations

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Accounting for negative events or situations with internal, stable, and global explanations

Mere Exposure Effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

Elaboration Likelihood Model of Attitude Change

People are more likely to carefully process persuasive messages when they are motivated and capable of considering all available information

Central Route of Persuasion

The process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments

Peripheral Route of Persuasion

The process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues

Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon

Tendency for people who have first agreed  to a small request to comply later with a larger request

Door-In-The-Face Technique

Asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment and getting agreement

Cognitive Dissonance

The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent.

Social Norms

expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior

Persuasion

A kind of speaking or writing that is intended to influence people's actions.

Social Influence Theory

examines how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by the presence and actions of others

Halo Effect

the tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic

Normative Social Influence Theory

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Informational Social Influence Theory

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

Conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Obedience

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

Social facilitation

the phenomenon where individuals' performance on a task improves when they are in the presence of others, especially when the task is well-practiced or simple.

social loafing

individuals exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone

deindividuation

an experiential state characterized by loss of self-awareness, altered perceptions, and a reduction of inner restraints that results in the performance of unusual and sometimes antisocial behavior. It can be caused by a number of factors, such as a sense of anonymity or submersion in a group.

group polarization

group discussions lead individuals to adopt more extreme positions on issues than they held initially

Groupthink

a group prioritizes harmony and conformity over critical thinking and rational decision-making, leading to flawed judgments

social trap

a situation where individuals or groups make choices that benefit them in the short term, but result in long-term, negative consequences for the group as a whole.

Cultural Norms

the unwritten rules and expectations that guide behavior within a specific society or group.

Stereotype

a widely held but simplified and often exaggerated idea about a particular group or type of person or thing. It can be positive or negative and is often used to make generalizations about individuals within the group.

Prejudice

preconceived opinions or feelings, often negative, formed without sufficient knowledge or thought, especially towards a particular group or individual. It can manifest as unfair judgments, discrimination, and stereotypes based on factors like race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, or other group affiliations.

Implicit attitudes

a person's unconscious, automatic & involuntary evaluation of a person or group. These attitudes are not consciously endorsed or readily accessible, but they still influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Discrimination

Unjustified Negative behavior toward members of a target group (individual level) based on their race, ethnicity, or other shared characteristic

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Expectation held by a person that alters his or her behavior in a way that tends to make it true

Ethnocentrism

Tendency to use your own culture as the standard by which to judge and evaluate other cultures

In-group bias

he tendency to favor and show preferential treatment to members of one's own social group over members of other groups

Out-group homogeneity bias

The tendency for us to view members of outgroups as being more similar, or homogeneous, than members of ingroups that we belong to

Superordinate goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

Multiculturalism

the coexistence and recognition of multiple cultures within a society, often including policies and practices that promote cultural diversity and equality.

Social comparison

a process where individuals evaluate themselves by comparing their own traits, abilities, opinions, and achievements to those of others.

Relative deprivation

the feeling of discontent experienced when an individual or group perceives a disparity between their own circumstances and those of others, or between their expectations and their actual situation.

Individualism

cultures prioritize individual autonomy, independence, and personal achievement

Collectivism

cultures emphasize group harmony, interdependence, and the well-being of the collective.

Stereotype threat

happens when someone feels worried that they might confirm a negative stereotype about a group they belong to. This stress can make it harder for them to perform their best, like on a test or in a competition.

Stereotype lift

happens when a non-stereotyped group performs better than a stereotyped group due to being aware of the negative stereotype associated with the other group

Confirmation bias

Cognitive dissonance

people’s tendency to process information by looking for, or interpreting, information that is consistent with their existing beliefs.

Belief perseverance

a tendency where people maintain their beliefs, even when confronted with evidence that contradicts them.

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists

a field that applies psychological principles and research to understand and improve human behavior in the workplace.

Locus of control (internal/external)

an individual's belief about how much control they have over the events in their life. Specifically, it describes whether people believe their life is determined by their own actions (internal locus of control) or by outside forces beyond their influence (external locus of control).

Overconfidence

a cognitive bias where individuals overestimate their own abilities, knowledge, or the likelihood of success in a situation, often leading to poor decision-making.