Remembrance 4 days

1453 - Fall of Constantinople

End of the Byzantine Empire; rise of the Ottoman Empire.

1492 - Columbus arrives

Initiates European colonization and the Columbian Exchange.

1517 - Martin Luther’s 95 Theses

Begins the Protestant Reformation and challenges the Catholic Church.

1588 - Spanish Armada Defeated

Decline of Spanish dominance; rise of England as a naval power.

1618-1648 - Thirty Years’ War

Religious and political conflict in Europe, ended by the Peace of Westphalia.

1648 - Peace of Westphalia

Ends the Thirty Years’ War; establishes the modern state system.

1789 - French Revolution

Overthrows the French monarchy and establishes the French Republic.

1789 - Declaration of the Rights of Man

French Revolution document declaring human rights and liberties.

1804 - Napoleon Becomes Emperor

Marks the peak of Napoleonic France and the spread of revolutionary ideas.

1815 - Battle of Waterloo

Napoleon is defeated, marking the end of his rule and the Congress of Vienna.

1914-1918 - World War I

Major global conflict; results in the collapse of empires and changes in European politics.

1917 - Russian Revolution

Overthrows the Tsar, establishing the Soviet Union.

1919 - Treaty of Versailles

Ended World War I; imposed harsh terms on Germany, changing European borders.

1939-1945 - World War II

Global conflict leading to the formation of the United Nations and the Cold War.

1949 - Formation of NATO

Western alliance for mutual defense against Soviet expansion.

1989 - Fall of Berlin Wall

Symbolizes the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe.

Martin Luther

German monk; sparked the Protestant Reformation with his 95 Theses.

John Calvin

Leader of the Reformation; founder of Calvinism, which emphasized predestination.

Henry VIII

King of England; broke from the Catholic Church and formed the Church of England.

Louis XIV

"Sun King" of France; symbolized absolute monarchy and centralized power.

Napoleon Bonaparte

French general turned Emperor; spread revolutionary ideals across Europe.

Elizabeth I

Queen of England; defeated the Spanish Armada and solidified Protestantism.

Peter the Great

Tsar of Russia; modernized Russia and expanded its borders.

Catherine the Great

Russian empress; expanded Russia and supported Enlightenment reforms.

Voltaire

Philosopher; advocated for civil liberties and the separation of church and state.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Philosopher; wrote The Social Contract, advocating for democracy and equality.

John Locke

Philosopher; believed in natural rights and influenced democratic revolutions.

Karl Marx

Philosopher; co-wrote The Communist Manifesto, advocating for class struggle and socialism.

Sigmund Freud

Psychologist; founded psychoanalysis, influencing modern psychology.

William Shakespeare

English playwright; created iconic works such as Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet.

Leonardo da Vinci

Renaissance artist; known for masterpieces like Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.

Michelangelo

Renaissance sculptor and painter; famous for the Sistine Chapel ceiling and David.

Otto von Bismarck

Prussian statesman; engineered German unification and pioneered realpolitik.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Italian nationalist leader; key figure in Italian unification with military campaigns.

Niccolò Machiavelli

Renaissance political thinker; wrote The Prince, advocating pragmatic rule.

Metternich

Austrian diplomat; led conservative efforts at the Congress of Vienna.

Winston Churchill

British Prime Minister during WWII; known for leadership and anti-Nazi stance.

Joseph Stalin

Soviet dictator; led USSR through WWII and early Cold War, known for brutal policies.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain; struggled to maintain Catholic unity in Europe.

Mary I (Bloody Mary)

Queen of England; tried to restore Catholicism, known for persecuting Protestants.

Robespierre

Leader during the French Revolution’s Reign of Terror; radical Jacobin.

Alexander II of Russia

Tsar who emancipated the serfs in 1861 and initiated limited reforms.

Adolf Hitler

Dictator of Nazi Germany; initiated World War II and the Holocaust.

Magna Carta (1215)

Limited the power of the English king; a foundation for constitutional government.

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

Ended World War I; imposed harsh terms on Germany, changing European borders.

Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789)

French Revolution document declaring human rights and liberties.

Congress of Vienna (1815)

Redrew Europe's borders after Napoleon’s defeat.

The Communist Manifesto (1848)

Call for proletariat revolution against capitalist systems.

The Edict of Nantes (1598)

Granted religious tolerance to Protestants in France.

The Peace of Augsburg (1555)

Allowed rulers of Holy Roman Empire states to choose between Lutheranism and Catholicism.

The English Bill of Rights (1689)

Limited the monarchy; affirmed Parliament's power.

The League of Nations (1920-1946)

Early attempt at international diplomacy after WWI; precursor to the UN.

The United Nations (1945)

International organization founded after WWII to promote peace and cooperation.

The European Union

Economic and political union of European countries, formed after WWII.

NATO (1949)

Military alliance of Western countries to deter Soviet aggression.

Humanism

Intellectual movement focused on classical antiquity and human potential.

Absolutism

Monarchs hold absolute power, as seen in Louis XIV and Peter the Great.

Mercantilism

Economic theory emphasizing the accumulation of wealth through trade.

Enlightenment

Intellectual movement promoting reason, individualism, and skepticism of authority.

Social Contract

Rousseau’s theory that individuals consent to form a government for mutual protection.

Capitalism

Economic system based on private ownership and free markets.

Socialism

Political theory advocating for government control to promote equality.

Nationalism

Promotes the interests and identity of a particular nation.

Romanticism

Artistic movement emphasizing emotion, nature, and individualism.

Utilitarianism

Ethical theory by John Stuart Mill, advocating for the greatest good for the greatest number.

Imperialism

Policy of extending a country's power through colonization and conquest.

Feminism

Social movement seeking equal rights for women.

Darwinism

Theory of natural selection by Charles Darwin; influences social and scientific thought.

Laissez-faire

Economic philosophy advocating minimal government intervention in markets.

Existentialism

20th-century philosophy focused on individual existence, freedom, and choice.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Early feminist thinker; wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.

The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)

Conflict between England and France; ended feudalism and boosted monarchies.

The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)

Religious and political conflict; ended with the Peace of Westphalia.

Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815)

Wars led by Napoleon; reshaped Europe and led to the Congress of Vienna.

World War I (1914-1918)

Major global conflict; led to the collapse of empires and political instability.

World War II (1939-1945)

Devastating global conflict; led to the Cold War and the rise of the European Union.

The Cold War (1947-1991)

Political and ideological conflict between the Soviet Union and the U.S.

The French Revolution (1789-1799)

Overthrew the monarchy; led to the establishment of the French Republic.

American Revolution (1775-1783)

Colonial revolt against British rule; influenced European revolutions.

Russian Revolution (1917)

Overthrew the Tsar; led to the rise of the Soviet Union.

Revolutions of 1848

Widespread uprisings across Europe demanding reforms and democratic rights.

German Unification (1871)

Under Bismarck, Germany unified into a powerful state.

Italian Unification (1861)

Unified fragmented Italian states into a single nation.

Women’s Suffrage Movement

Advocated for women’s voting rights, leading to changes in political participation.

The February Revolution (1917)

Overthrew the Russian Tsar, leading to the Bolshevik Revolution later that year.

The Prague Spring (1968)

Failed attempt by Czechoslovakia to reform communism under Dubček.

Baroque Art (1600-1750)

Artistic style emphasizing drama, emotion, and movement; popular in Catholic Europe.

Romanticism (late 18th-19th)

Artistic movement emphasizing emotion, nature, and individualism.

Realism (19th Century)

Art and literature focused on depicting everyday life and social issues.

Impressionism (19th Century)

Artistic movement focusing on light, color, and everyday scenes.

Feminist Literature

Works advocating for gender equality, like Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.

The Scientific Revolution

Intellectual revolution that laid the foundation for modern science (16th-18th centuries).

The Renaissance Movement

Cultural movement that revived interest in classical Greek and Roman thought.

The Enlightenment Movement

Intellectual movement that shaped modern political thought.

Modernism (late 19th–20th c.)

Movement challenging traditional art, architecture, and literature through innovation.

Postmodernism

Artistic and intellectual movement skeptical of grand narratives and embracing relativism.

The Catholic Church

Major religious and political institution in Europe for centuries.

The Holy Roman Empire

Political entity in Central Europe; played a central role in medieval Europe.

The Soviet Union (1922-1991)

Socialist state; major global power during the Cold War.

The Ottoman Empire

Powerful empire; key player in European and world history for centuries.