Maternal Care and Attachment

attachment (Bowlby)

strong disposition to seek proximity to and contact with a specific figure and to do so in certain situations

attachment in infants

- relatively enduring emotional bond of the infant to the caregiver
- enables the infant to deal with stressors and negative emotions
- evolutionary need: dependent on adults for caregiving and protection
- virtually all children develop attachment bonds
- fully developed ~12 months of age

Normative development of attachment phases

Phase 1: (0-8 weeks) initial preattachment phase
Phase 2: (2-12 months) attachment in the making
Phase 3: (\>12 months) clear-cut attachment

Phase 1: (0-8 weeks) initial pre-attachment phase

- caregivers maintain proximity
- newborn is equipped to be responsive to others, and to elicit caregiving and affection
- some ability to discriminate between caregivers, not yet relevant for their needs to be met

Phase 2: (2-12 months) attachment in the making

* more clearly discriminates between caregivers
* build up expectations of how needs will be met
* directing their attachment behaviors, actively seeking attention, not only passively responding
* more complex behaviors, less crying

Phase 3: (\>12 months) clear-cut attachment

- attachment fully developed
- strange situation can be performed

Circle of Security

parent attending to the toddlers needs; secure base in non-stressful situations and safe haven during stress

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uncomplicated contact seeking and free exploration

Attachment classifications

A) Avoidant attachment
B) Secure attachment
C) Resistant attachment
D) Disorganized attachment

A) Avoidant attachment

- strategy: minimize attachment
- interaction history: caregiver rejecting, unavailable, less holding, less responding to infant's cries, controlling

C) Resistant attachment

- strategy: maximize attachment behavior
- interaction history: caregiver inconsistent, angry, anxious

D) Disorganized attachment

* strategy: no strategy (fear of caregiver, contradictory behaviors)
* interaction history: caregiver unpredictable, abusive, frightening, contradictory cues, role confusion
* --> fear in the attachment relationship serves as the driving force behind disorganization

reactive attachment disorder (RAD)

children who are very withdrawn from their caregivers and who don't show proximity seeking or contact maintenance to the caregivers, even when highly distressed

disinhibited social engagement disorder

failure to show a preference for familiar caregivers even when the child is frightened or distressed

later outcomes through parent-infant regulatory processes

secure and insecure infants use different regulating behaviors when psychologically stressed:

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external dyadic regulation of emotions and behavior --> internalizers --> self regulation

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insecure attachment (ACD) ---> regulatory problems

later outcomes through internal working models

parent-infant attachment as prototype --\> internal working models --\> foundation for later relationships

experimental evidence for internal working models (Kirsh & Cassidy)

- secure children recalled stories about sensitive mother-child interactions better
- insecure children recall rejecting stories better

later outcomes through biological processes

parent-infant attachment as cue of stress environment --\> adaptations related to reproductive success

life history theory

all about trade-offs, allocating resources and energy; optimal trade-offs depend on the environment

* safe /predictable environment → slow life history strategy
* harsh/unpredictable environment → fast life history strategy

Jay Belsky et al., 2010

individuals who had been insecure infants initiated and completed pubertal development earlier compared with individuals who had been secure infants

precurses of attachment: central to attachment theory

a sensitive, responsive caregiver is of fundamental importance to the development of a secure attachment bond

Ainsworth rating scales of maternal sensitivity

1. Awareness of the signals
2. An accurate interpretation of them
3. An appropriate response
4. A prompt response

child characteristics: temperament, esp. negative affectivity

not proven to be a (major) contributor to attachment security

technological gap of sensitivity

quality, intensity, or context of measurement is suboptimal

domain gap of sensitivity

predictive elements of parenting not yet defined

intergenerational transmission of attachment (→ cycle of abuse)

this link across generations is partially explained by
- aspects of caregiving behaviors
- the caregiver's representation of their child

cycle of abuse

connection between a parent's own history of abuse and an increased probability that the parent will mistreat their own child (~30-40%)

Verhage et al., 2016 attachment styles in children