ecology

Behavior

The actions or reactions of an organism in response to external or internal stimuli

Behavior Ecology

The study of the ecological and evolutionary basis for animal behavior and the roles of behavior in enabling animals to adapt to their ecological niches

Learned Behavior

Behavior ranging from simple changes to complex problem solving, sometimes involving a combination of innate behaviors and experience

Imprinting

Learning limited to a specific critical period in life that is generally irreversible

Innate Rhythms

Natural, inherent biological cycles and activity patterns in animals

Circadian Rhythms

Daily activity patterns of animals with a regular pattern of about 24 hours, adjusted by external cues like sunlight (e.g., feeding, sleeping, singing)

Tarsier

An animal exhibiting nocturnal activity patterns

Ostrich

An animal exhibiting diurnal activity patterns (majority of activity during daylight hours)

Mountain Lion

An animal exhibiting crepuscular activity patterns (active during dawn/dusk)

Circannual Cycles

Seasonal behavioral patterns occurring on an approximately one-year cycle, influenced by photoperiod (day length)

Examples of Circannual Cycles

Molting, breeding, hibernation, and migration

Migration

Periodic movement from one location to another (e.g., breeding areas) in response to changing resources like food and water

Courtship

Physical characteristics along with ritualized displays and behaviors to increase intraspecific recognition (visual or auditory)

Mating Systems

Patterns of sexual behavior and pairing in species

Monogamy

A pair bond with a single member of the opposite sex

Polygamy

Bonds with many members of the opposite sex

Polyandry

Females associate with many males

Polygyny

Males mate with several females

Social Behaviors

Behavior directed towards, or taking place between, members of the same species

Communication

Provokes a response without acting directly on the receiver

Habitat Selection

Choosing a habitat offering the best success; some defend areas that are better than others

Territorial Behavior

Defending an area against intrusion by others of the same species to ensure appropriate spacing for food and resources

Home Range

Area included in the daily, seasonal, and annual travels of an animal

Territory

Area defended by an individual or group against intrusion by others of the same species (smaller than home range)

Kin Selection

Natural selection operating on the interactions between closely related cooperating individuals

Thermoregulation

The biological process that allows animals to maintain their core internal body temperature within a safe, functional range

Predator Avoidance

Primary defenses to avoid being seen and secondary defenses used when a predator is near

Dilution Effect

An anti-predator strategy where individuals reduce personal risk of attack by living in a group (probability of target decreases as group size increases)

Predator Detection Benefits

Group predator vigilance increases, leading to faster predator detection

Biodiversity

The diversity of genes, species, and ecosystems in a region

Hierarchy of Biodiversity

Genetic Diversity, Species Diversity, Ecosystem Diversity

Genetic Diversity

The number of different kinds of genes in a population or species

Factors Changing Genetic Diversity

Mutations (harmful/helpful), Immigration (new genetic material), and Sexual Reproduction (new genetic combinations)

Species Diversity

The measure of different species present in an area

Factors Influencing Species Diversity

History of the region (Poles vs. Tropics), Immigration (may cause decline), Size of the area, and Human activity

Ecosystem Diversity

The number of kinds of ecosystems present in an area (larger area = more ecosystems)

Biological Value of Biodiversity

Higher biodiversity leads to higher ecosystem services

Ecosystem Services

The benefits ecosystems provide, divided into Provisioning, Regulating, Supporting, and Cultural services

Provisioning Services

Tangible products and physical goods humans obtain directly from ecosystems (e.g., food, timber, fuel, fibers)

Regulating Services

Benefits obtained from the way ecosystems moderate, control, or stabilize natural processes (e.g., climate regulation, carbon sequestration, water purification, pollination)

Supporting Services

Foundational natural processes that maintain provisioning and regulating services (e.g., photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, seed dispersal)

Cultural Services

Non-material and intangible benefits obtained from ecosystems (e.g., recreation, spiritual, cultural value)

Ethical Value of Biodiversity

Organisms have an intrinsic value to exist, and there is great value in knowing wild areas exist

When Biodiversity is Lost

When populations are greatly reduced in size, a species becomes extinct, or an ecosystem is greatly modified/destroyed

Areas of Highest Biodiversity Loss

Amazon Basin, Southeast Asia, Bangladesh, Indus Valley, Middle East, Central Asia, Eastern Africa, and Oceanic regions

Threatened Mammals

38% of mammals are threatened; 80% of primates in Asia are threatened due to habitat loss and hunting

Whooping Crane Imprinting Example

Whooping crane chicks imprinted on sandhill crane mothers, causing them to migrate, eat, and attempt to court/mate with sandhill cranes, failing to establish a new migratory population

Monotremes - Platypus and Echidna

Mammals that lay eggs

Mammalia Characteristics

Hair, mammary glands, and three ear bones

Carnivora Characteristics

Prominent canines and sharp claws (e.g., bobcats, sun bears, spotted hyenas, fishers)

Largest Rodent

Capybara

Only Flying Mammal

Bats

Mammalia Diversity: Rodents

Make up 40% of all mammal species

Mammalia Diversity: Bats

Make up 20% of all mammal species

Majority Mammal Groups

Rodents and bats combined account for more than half of all mammal species in the world

Diprotodontia Examples

Red-necked wallaby, brushtail possum, wombat, red kangaroo, koala

Marsupial Examples

Monito del monte, shrew opossum, Virginia opossum, bare-tailed woolly opossum

Total World Mammal Species

~5,500 species

North American Mammal Species

~965 species

Unique Bird Feature

Feathers

Passeriformes Diversity

Contains more than 50% of all bird species

Total World Bird Species

~9,900 species

North American Bird Species

~2,000 species

US Bird Species

~925 species

Total World Reptile Species

~8,200 species

Total World Amphibian Species

~6,500 species

Ecology Etymology

Coined by Ernst Haeckel using "Oikos" (home) and "Logos" (study of)

Ecology Etymology

Eco (oikos) = home; logy (logos) = study; Ecology = study of home

Ecology Definition

Scientific study of distributions, abundance, and relations of organisms and their interactions with the environment

Ecosystem Definition

Biological environment consisting of all living organisms in an area and their nonliving physical components (air, soil, water, sunlight)

Carbon Cycle Importance

Kept in balance, makes up food eaten, regulates climate, and provides energy

Carbon Cycle Movement

Moves into atmosphere via photosynthesis and returns through decaying

Nitrogen Cycle Role

Building block for DNA and RNA; acts as a limiting nutrient in many systems

Nitrogen Fixation & Return

Some plants use symbiont bacteria to fix nitrogen from the air; decomposers return it to the soil

Trophic Level Energy Loss

Approximately 90% of energy is lost as you move up each trophic level, decreasing organism numbers

Primary Link to Solar Energy

Plants (algae, phytoplankton) form the critical link between the sun and all other life

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Energy transformation is not 100% efficient; heat absorption cannot be completely converted into work

10% Rule of Thumb

Only about 10% of the energy used at one trophic level is available to the next

Pyramid of Numbers Order

Producers -> Primary consumers (insects, birds) -> Secondary consumers (foxes, hawks)

Community Definition

The living (biotic) part of an ecosystem, which varies across space and time

Biomes Definition & Examples

Large ecological communities (e.g., Mojave Desert, Temperate Broadleaf)

Pioneer Community

The first step in ecological succession

Climax Community

The final step in ecological succession

Primary vs. Secondary Succession

Primary occurs where no community previously existed; secondary occurs where remnants of a past community remain

Generalists vs. Specialists

Generalists have a greater range of tolerance; specialists have a narrow range of tolerance

Tolerance Zones

Optimum range = highest survival/reproduction; Zone of stress = decreased survival/reproduction; Zone of intolerance = no survival/reproduction

Niche Definition

The functional role or "job" of an organism in its environment

Competitive Exclusion Theory

No two organisms can occupy the same niche at the same time in the same place

Natural Selection Definition

Process determining which individuals pass on their genes to the next generation

Evolution Definition

Changes seen in genes and characteristics displayed by successive generations of a population

Speciation Definition

Production of a new species from a previously existing species

Allopatric vs. Sympatric Speciation

Allopatric speciation is separated by space; sympatric speciation occurs within the same area

Intraspecific vs. Interspecific Competition

Intraspecific is competition between the same species; interspecific is between different species

Ectoparasite vs. Endoparasite

Ectoparasites live on the outside/surface of a host; endoparasites live inside the host

Commensalism

Symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits and the other is unaffected

Mutualism

Symbiotic relationship where both species benefit; often obligatory

Paratism

A long standing relationship between two different species in which one benefits and the other is negatively affected

Habitat Definition

Physical and biological resources required by an organism for its survival and reproduction

Four Basic Components of Habitat

Food, shelter (cover), water, space

Two Most Important Habitat Features

Food and shelter/cover