AP Psych -- Princeton Review

Physiological Psychology

study of behavior influenced by psychology

Uses biology and medicine to examine psychological problems

Behavioral Genetics

Application of the principles of evolutionary theory to the study of behavior

Traits

Distinctive characteristics or behavior patterns that are determined by genetics

Genes

Basic biological elements responsible for carrying information about traits between generations

Evolutionary Perspective

How the principles of evolution apply to psychology

Eugenics

Has been discredited

Idea that some genes are superior to others

behavioral-genetics approach

Examines the ways we are different from one another

Heritability

Degree of variance among individuals that can be attributed to genetic variations

Environmentality

Degree to which a trait’s expression is caused by the environment where an organism lives

nature v.s. nurture debate

Debate over the degree our environment and/or our biology impacts an individual

Common view that nature and nurture work together

Our psychological makeup is the result of the interaction of the two

Primary methods of research in behavioral genetics

Twin studies

Adoption studies

Family studies

What are the 2 categories the nervous system can be divided into?

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Central Nervous System

The brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

Every other nerve in the body — excluding CNS

The brain is the…

Central processing center for behavior, thoughts, motivations, and emotions

What is the brain and nervous system made up of?

Neurons (nerve cells)

Nerves

Responsible for conveying information to and from the brain and the PNS

Afferent Neurons

AKA sensory neurons

Send information to the brain — think afferent arrives to the brain

Efferent Neurons

AKA motor neurons

Send information from the brain — think efferent exits the brain

Reflexes

Controlled by direct transmission from afferent to efferent cells

Quick and involuntary responses to environmental stimuli

Reflex arc

Path goes from sensory neurons to motor neurons

Interneurons

Communicate between afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) neurons

What subdivisions can the parasympathetic system be divided into?

Somatic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system

Somatic Nervous System

Responsible for voluntary movement of large skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls the nonskeletal muscles — heart and digestive tract, muscles that typically arent under voluntary control

What subdivisions can the autonomic nervous system be divided into?

Sympathetic nervous systems

Parasympathetic nervous systems

Sympathetic Nervous System

Processes that burn energy

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Complementary system responsible for conserving energy

Returns the body to homeostasis

Nerves

Bundles of neurons

Basic unit of the nervous system

Nuerons

Cells with a defined cell body (soma) with a nucleus

Dendrites

Receive input from other neurons through their receptors

Axon

Long, tubelike structure that responds to input from the dendrites and soma

Transmits a neural message then passes its information to other cells

Myelin Sheath

Fatty coating surrounding the axon — picture beads on a string

Insulation for axons

Speeds up the rate at which electrical information travels

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps between myelin sheath

Help speed up neural transmission

Terminal buttons

Knobs on the end of the axon

Comes close to the cell bodies and other cells dendrites but doesn’t touch

Synapse

Gap between one neuron’s terminal buttons and another neuron’s cell body and dendrites

Neurotransmitters

Released by terminal buttons

Chemical messengers sent across the synapse and bind with receptors on a neuron’s dendrites

Glial Cells

Non-neuronal cells that provide support to neurons

Resting Membrane Potential

Electric potential across the plasma membrane of apx —70 millivolts (mV)

Depolarization

Change in the membrane potential from the resting membrane potential to a less negative, or positive potential

Action potential — Nerve Impulse

An electrical impulse along the axon, triggered when the membrane potential hits a specific threshold — causes depolarization

Repolarization

Returns the membrane potential to normal

Action potentials are generated at what kind of strength?

Fixed Strength

“all or none” either it gets fired or it doesn’t

What happens after a neuron fires? Define it.

Refractory Phase: No amount of stimulation can cause the neuron to fire again

Relative Refractory Phase

Neuron needs more stimulation than usual to fire again

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Excite the cell, or cause the neuron to fire

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Inhibit, or stop cell firing

Reuptake

Process where a released neurotransmitter is reabsorbed by the neuron that released it

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter

Affects memory function and muscle contraction — specifically in the heart

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter

Arousal, sleep, pain sensitivity, mood, and hunger regulation

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter

Movement, attention, and reward

Imbalances may lead to Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia

GABA

Neurotransmitter

Inhibitory neurotransmitter

Glutamate

Neurotransmitter

Excitatory neurotransmitter — counter to GABA

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter

Affects levels of alertness

Lack implicated in depression

Endorphins

Neurotransmitter

Body’s natural painkillers

Substance P

Neurotransmitter

Pain, mood, vasodilation, and learning

Endocrine System

Way various parts of our bodies relay information

Works through glands that release hormones

Hormones

Affect cell growth and proliferation

Released in blood stream and travel throughout the body

Coordinate a wide range of responses

Primary gland in the endocrine system? Define it.

Pituitary Gland: AKA the master gland — controls other glands in your body, key in regulating vital bodily functions and well being

Just under the hypothalamus

What happens when the sympathetic nervous system is activated?

Release of epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

Leptin

Hormone involved in regulating hunger and energy

Resistance implicated in obesity

Ghrelin

Hormone that tells your brain it’s hungry

Melatonin

Hormone involved with sleep

Controlled by level of light

Oxytocin

Hormone involved with arousal/romantic attachment, and parental bonding

Agonist

Psychoactive drugs that increase the effect of a neurotransmitter

Antagonist

Psychoactive drugs that decrease the effect of a neurotransmitter

Reuptake inhibitors

Preventing neurotransmitters from being sucked back into the sending neuron

Alcohol effects on CNS and Brain and Body

Depressant

Decreases Dopamine levels

Barbiturates effects on CNS and Brain and Body

Depressant

Inhibits neural arousal centers

Tranquilizers effects on CNS and Brain and Body

Depressant

Inhibits neural arousal centers

Caffeine effects on CNS and Brain and Body

Stimulant

Accelerates heart rate and constricts blood vessels

Reduces levels of adenosine — neurochemical regulator of norepinephrine release

Amphetamines effects on CNS and Brain and Body

Stimulant

Increases body temperature and heart rate

Increases dopamine and norepinephrine production

Cocaine effects on CNS and Brain and Body

Simulant

Heart rate and blood pressure

Increases dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine release

Nicotine effects on CNS and Brain and Body

Simulant

Stimulates acetylcholine transmission

Increases heart rate

Opioids effects on CNS and Brain and Body

Depressant

Activate receptors that produce endorphins

Hallucinogens effects on CNS and Brain and Body

Distort sensory perceptions

May increase serotonin levels

Alcohol’s effect on behavior

Symptoms associated with drunkeness

High does can lead to respiratory depression or death

Barbiturates’ effect on behavior

Decrease anxiety

High does can result in respiratory depression or death

Tranquilizers’ effect on behavior

Reduce anxiety without inducing sleep

Caffeine’s effect on behavior

Irritability, anxiety, and insomnia

Amphetamines’ effect on behavior

Feelings of euphoria

High does can lead to motor dysfunction

Cocaine’s effect on behavior

Feelings of increased mental and social ability

Nicotine’s effect on behavior

Depressant behavioral effects

Can cause euphoria and dizziness

Opioids’ effect on behavior

Relaxation and euphoria — can reduce pain

Impaired cognitive ability, nausea, and respiratory depression

Hallucinogens’ effect on behavior

Sensory synesthesia — stimuli from one sense produces sensory effects in other senses

Paranoia

Dependence

Continued drug use to avoid negative physical/psychological effects from not using

Addictive drugs share this characteristic.

Addictive drugs increases dopamine activity in the brain stem — “pleasure center” — leading to feelings of reward and pleasure

Tolerance

Larger doses of a drug are needed for the same effect to occur

Withdrawal

Process of weaning off a drug a person has become dependent on

Physical and psychological symptoms follow

Hindbrain

Oldest part of the brain

Cerebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular activating system, and pons

Forebrain

Limbic system — emotional center of the brain

Thalamus, Hippocampus, amygdala, cerebral cortex, and hypothalamus

Cerebellum

Muscle tone and balance

Coordination of movement

Procedural learning

Brain Stem — medulla oblongata

Involuntary actions — breathing, digeston, heart rate, and swallowing

Reticular Activating System (RAS) — Reticular Formation

Brain’s reward system

Controls some voluntary movement

Role in learning, emotion, and cognition

Pons

Way station — passes neural information from one brain region to another

Implicated in REM sleep

Thalamus

Sensory information — receives and directs sensory information from visual and auditory systems

Hippocampus

Processing and integrating memories

Anterograde Amnesia

Damage to the hippocampus

Prevents the formation of new memories

Amygdala

Anger, frustration, and fear

Hypothalamus

Controls temperature and water balance in body

Controls hunger and $ex drive

Activation of the sympathetic nervous system and endocrine system

Divided into lateral hypothalamus and ventromedial — together regulates eating behavior and body weight