Developmental Psychology Test 1

The Life-Span Perspective

Looking at development from birth to old age. development doesn’t stop when when we reach adulthood rather it continues as we reach certain life milestones

studies how and why people change or remain the same over time.

Multidisciplinary

In psychology, lots of different fields all contribute to understand how humans evolve as they grow (multi) lots of areas and disciplinary meaning study of psych

Nature V.S Nurture

Nature is the genetic factors we get from our families while nurture is the environment around us and how it affects us. These two ideas come into play as we wonder how our biological features and the environment we live in affects our development

For any particular feature, those on the “nature” side would argue that heredity plays the most important role in bringing about that feature. Those on the “nurture” side would argue that one’s environment is most significant in shaping the way we are. This debate continues in questions about what makes us masculine or feminine

most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between the two forces. It is difficult to isolate the root of any single behavior as a result solely of nature or nurture and most scholars believe that even determining the extent to which nature or nurture impacts a human feature is difficult to answeR

Experimental research

A research method that investigates cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating independent variables and measuring their effects on dependent variables, often conducted in controlled environments.

Most important part about it is the fact that you need random design because it allows the groups to be somewhat similar

• Cofounds should be avoided (things that could get in the way of getting accurate results)

• Placebo effect (if some participants know they are getting the happy pill, they might develop expectations that influence their self-reported happiness)

• Participation demand is when participants alter their behavior based on their perceptions of the study's purpose or what they believe the researcher wants.

• Experimental expectation is the experimenter looking for evidence that supports their hypothesis which could affect resuts

• DOUBLE BLIND FIXES ALL OF THIS

Correlation design

we identify patterns of relationships, but we usually cannot infer what causes what. Importantly, with correlational research, you can examine only two variables at a time, no more and no less.

The relationship between two factors is put on a scatter plot. The more dispersed it is that means its weak, the tighter the dots, the stronger

higher R vaule means its stronger (this can be in a negative or postive) closer to 0 meas weak correlation

• Correlation DOESN’T mean Causation

Qualatative Design

Qualitative designs, including participant observation, case studies, and narrative analysis are examples of such methodologies. Although something as simple as “observation” may seem like it would be a part of all research methods, participant observation is a distinct methodology that involves the researcher embedding him- or herself into a group in order to study its dynamics

• case study, which involves an intensive examination of specific individuals or specific contexts. Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, was famous for using this type of methodology; however, more current examples of case studies usually involve brain injuries.

• The final qualitative method to be discussed in this section is narrative analysis. Narrative analysis centers around the study of stories and personal accounts of people, groups, or cultures. In this methodology, rather than engaging with participants directly, or quantifying their responses or behaviors, researchers will analyze the themes, structure, and dialogue of each person’s narrative.

Quasi-Experimental

An experiment without random assignment (in a experiment abut marriage you cant randomly assign people to get married!)

Longitual studies

Longitudinal studies track the same people over time. Some longitudinal studies last a few weeks, some a few months, some a year or more. Some studies that have contributed a lot to psychology followed the same people over decades.

provide valuable evidence for testing many theories in psychology, but they can be quite costly to conduct, e

Surveys

A survey is a way of gathering information, using old-fashioned questionnaires or the Internet.

surveys can reach a larger number of participants at a much lower cost. Although surveys are typically used for correlational research, this is not always the case.

Independent variable

The variable that is being modified (how much sleep one will get)

Dependent Variable

The affects the independent variable has on something (How does it affect SLEEP)

Prenatal

Conception to birth

All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and delivery are primary concerns

Infancy and toddlerhood

The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child

Early childhood

Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years consisting of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may have initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance such as fearing that they may go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for doing something that brings the disapproval of others.

Middle Childhood

The ages of six through eleven comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Schools compare students and make these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow students.

Adolences

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences.

Early Adulthood

The twenties and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood. (Students who are in their mid 30s tend to love to hear that they are a young adult!). It is a time when we are at our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of others. Love and work are primary concerns at this stage of life

Middle Aduthood

The late thirties through the mid-sixties is referred to as middle adulthood. This is a period in which aging, that began earlier, becomes more noticeable and a period at which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency than before. It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life previously considered; of recognizing the difference between what is possible and what is likely

Late Adulthood

. Late adulthood is sometimes subdivided into two or three categories such as the “young old” and “old old” or the “young old”, “old old”, and “oldest old”. “young old” who are people between 65 and 79 and the “old old” or those who are 80 and older.  young old are very similar to midlife adults; still working, still relatively healthy, and still interested in being productive and active. The “old old” remain productive and active and the majority continues to live independently, but risks of the diseases of old age such as arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease increases substantially for this age group. Issues of housing, healthcare, and extending active life expectancy are only a few of the topics of concern for this age group.  A better way to appreciate the diversity of people in late adulthood is to go beyond chronological age and examine whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured above who is in very good health for his age and continues to have an active, stimulating life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age), or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease than others of the same age).

Death and Dying

This topic is seldom given the amount of coverage it deserves. Of course, there is a certain discomfort in thinking about death but there is also a certain confidence and acceptance that can come from studying death and dying. We will be examining the physical, psychological and social aspects of death, exploring grief or bereavement, and addressing ways in which helping professionals work in death and dying. And we will discuss cultural variations in mourning, burial, and grief.

Cohort Effect

t. A cohort is a group of people who are born at roughly the same period in a particular society. Cohorts share histories and contexts for living. Members of a cohort have experienced the same historic events and cultural climates which have an impact on the values, priorities, and goals that may guide their lives.

the influence of a group's shared experiences on their characteristics and behaviors over time. These shared experiences, often related to birth year, period of exposure, or a specific event, can lead to differences in how people behave compared to other groups

Upper Class: 

They own substantial wealth and after-tax annual family income of between $200,000 to $750,000

The upper class is subdivided into “upper-upper” and “lower-upper” categories based on how money and wealth was acquired. The “upper-upper class” (0.5%) has money from investments or inheritance and tend to be stewards of the family fortune. This “old money” brings a sense of polish and sophistication now shared by those with “new money”. The newly rich (0.5%) have made their fortunes as personalities in sports and media or as entrepreneurs. Members of the newly rich tend to flaunt their wealth; a practice looked upon with disdain by old money.

Upper Middle Class:

About 14 percent of the population in the United States is considered upper middle class. Income levels are more often between $100,000 and $200,000 annually and hold professional degrees that involve education beyond a four-year bachelor’s degree. One of the distinctions made between the middle class overall and members of the working class is that members of the middle class have occupations in which they are paid for their education and expertise.

“White Collar workers”

Middle Class:

. These individuals work in lower-paying, less autonomous white-collar jobs such as teaching and nursing or as lower-level managers. Members of the middle class may hold 2 or 4 year degrees, but often from less prestigious, state-supported schools. Their income typically ranges between $25,000 and $75,000 annually. They own less property and have less discretionary income than members of the upper-middle and upper class and yet they may share the values and standards held by the upper-middle class The average amount of credit card debt in American households is $8,000 and out of 144 million Americans who carry an “all purpose” credit card, only 55 million pay their entire balance off each month. 

Working Class

30 percent of Americans are considered members of the working class. The working class is comprised of those working in occupations such as retail, clerical or factory jobs. Their jobs are typically routine and more heavily supervised than those of the middle class and require less formal education than do white-collar jobs.

ewer earners and less job stability impacts not only family income, it also impacts the likelihood of having adequate health care. Being employed does not insure adequate healthcare; in fact, sixty-nine percent of the 45 million Americans who lack any medical insurance live in households where there is at least one full-time employee

found that working class parents emphasized obedience, honesty, and conformity in their children while middle-class parents valued independence, initiative, and self-reliance. These differences are attributed to the expectations made of parents as workers; blue-collar workers are rewarded for conformity while white-collar workers are rewarded for initiative.

Working poor

20% These people live near the poverty level and hold seasonal or temporary jobs as unskilled laborers. This includes migrant farm workers, temporary employees in service industries such as restaurants or in retail typically for minimum wage. The poor and working poor experience many of the same problems that can have an impact on development. We will examine this list after describing the next social class.

The Underclass

described as temporary workers, part-time workers, those who are chronically unemployed or underemployed

they may receive some governmental assistance and tend to be looked down upon by other members of society. Since 2008, we have seen national unemployment rates in the United States hovering around 10 percent due to changes in the economy and being unemployed is less stigmatized but still very stressful. Many of the underclass are children or are disabled. It is estimated that there are about 3.5 million homeless people in the United States and 1.5 of them are children

Culture

a blueprint or guideline shared by a group of people that specifies how to live. It includes ideas about what is right and wrong, what to strive for, what to eat, how to speak, what is valued, as well as what kinds of emotions are called for in certain situations. Culture teaches us how to live in a society and allows us to advance because each new generation can benefit from the solutions found and passed down from previous generations.

• The kinds of traditions and values that evolve in a particular culture serve to help members function in their own society and to value their own society. We tend to believe that our own culture’s practices and expectations are the right ones. (This belief that our own culture is superior is called ethnocentrism and is a normal by-product of growing up in a culture. It becomes a roadblock, however, when it inhibits understanding of cultural practices from other societies.) Cultural relativity is an appreciation for cultural differences and the understanding that cultural practices are best understood from the standpoint of that particular culture.

Important for understanding human development

Freud’s defense mechanism

When upsetting memories or thoughts begin to find their way into our consciousness, we develop defenses to shield us from these painful realities. These defense mechanisms include denying a reality,

repressing

pushing away bad thoughts

rationalizing

finding a seemingly logical explanation for circumstances

Repression

to push the painful thoughts out of consciousness (in other words, think about something else). 

Regression

going back to a time when the world felt like a safer place, perhaps reverting to one’s childhood.

 Denial

not accepting the truth or lying to the self. Thoughts such as “it won’t happen to me” or “you’re not leaving” or “I don’t have a problem with alcohol

projecting

attributing our feelings to someone else, or outwardly opposing something we inwardly desire (called reaction formation)

What was the main thing freud emphasized?

the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our personality and behavior. In our natural state, we are biological beings. We are driven primarily by instincts. During childhood, however, we begin to become social beings as we learn how to manage our instincts and transform them into socially acceptable behaviors. The type of parenting the child receives has a very powerful impact on the child’s personality development.

Sublimation

transforming unacceptable urges into more socially acceptable behaviors.

Displacement

taking out frustrations on to a safer target. A person who is angry at a boss may take out their frustration at others when driving home or at a spouse upon arrival. Projection is a defense mechanism in which a person attributes their unacceptable thoughts onto others. If someone is frightened, for example, he or she accuses someone else of being afraid

reaction formation

defense mechanism in which a person outwardly opposes something they inwardly desire, but that they find unacceptable. 

Theory of MInd (Freud)

most of our mental processes, motivations and desires are outside of our awareness. Our consciousness, that of which we are aware, represents only the tip of the iceberg that comprises our mental state. The preconscious represents that which can easily be called into the conscious mind. During development, our motivations and desires are gradually pushed into the unconscious because raw desires are often unacceptable in society.

Theory of Self

, our personality or self consists of three main parts: the id, the ego and the superego. 

• Id: is the part of the self with which we are born. It consists of the biologically-driven self and includes our instincts and drives. It is the part of us that wants immediate gratification. Later in life, it comes to house our deepest, often unacceptable desires such as sex and aggression: Infants are all Id

• Ego:is the part of the self that develops as we learn that there are limits on what is acceptable to do and that often, we must wait to have our needs satisfied. This part of the self is realistic and reasonable. It knows how to make compromises. It operates under the reality principle or the recognition that sometimes need gratification must be postponed for practical reasons. It acts as a mediator between the Id and the Superego and is viewed as the healthiest part of the self.

• Superego:the part of the self that develops as we learn the rules, standards, and values of society. This part of the self takes into account the moral guidelines that are a part of our culture.  If a person violates the superego, he or she feels guilty. The superego is useful but can be too strong; in this case, a person might feel overly anxious and guilty about circumstances over which they had no control. Such a person may experience high levels of stress and inhibition that keeps them from living well.

Psychosxual stages oral stage

the infant is in the oral stage of psychosexual development. The infant meets needs primarily through oral gratification. A baby wishes to suck or chew on any object that comes close to the mouth. Babies explore the world through the mouth and find comfort and stimulation as well. Psychologically, the infant is all Id. The infant seeks immediate gratification of needs such as comfort, warmth, food, and stimulation. If the caregiver meets oral needs consistently, the child will move away from this stage and progress further. However, if the caregiver is inconsistent or neglectful, the person may stay stuck in the oral stage. As an adult, the person might not feel good unless involved in some oral activity such as eating, drinking, smoking, nail-biting, or compulsive talking. These actions bring comfort and security when the person feels insecure, afraid, or bored.

Pyschosexual stage anal

anal stage which coincides with toddlerhood or mobility and potty-training, the child is taught that some urges must be contained and some actions postponed. There are rules about certain functions and when and where they are to be carried out. The child is learning a sense of self-control. The ego is being developed.  If the caregiver is extremely controlling about potty training (stands over the child waiting for the smallest indication that the child might need to go to the potty and immediately scoops the child up and places him on the potty chair, for example), the child may grow up fearing losing control. He may becoming fixated in this stage or “anal retentive”-fearful of letting go. Such a person might be extremely neat and clean, organized, reliable, and controlling of others. If the caregiver neglects to teach the child to control urges, he may grow up to be “anal expulsive” or an adult who is messy, irresponsible, and disorganized.

Phalliac stage psychsexual stage

Boys experience the “Oedipal Complex” in which they become sexually attracted to their mothers but realize that Father is in the way. He is much more powerful. For awhile, the boy fears that if he pursues his mother, father may castrate him (castration anxiety). So rather than risking losing his penis, he gives up his affections for his mother and instead learns to become more like his father, imitating his actions and mannerisms and thereby learns the role of males in his society. From this experience, the boy learns a sense of masculinity.if he does not resolve this successfully, he may become a “phallic male” or a man who constantly tries to prove his masculinity (about which he is insecure) by seducing women and beating up men!

 A little girl experiences the “Electra Complex” in which she develops an attraction for her father but realizes that she cannot compete with mother and so gives up that affection and learns to become more like her mother. This is not without some regret, however. Freud believed that the girl feels inferior because she does not have a penis (experiences “penis envy”). But she must resign herself to the fact that she is female and will just have to learn her inferior role in society as a female.  However, if she does not resolve this conflict successfully, she may have a weak sense of femininity and grow up to be a “castrating female” who tries to compete with men in the workplace or in other areas of life.

Latent stage

focusing his or her attention outside the family and toward friendships. The biological drives are temporarily quieted (latent) and the child can direct attention to a larger world of friends. If the child is able to make friends, he or she will gain a sense of confidence. If not, the child may continue to be a loner or shy away from others, even as an adult.

Genital Stage

From adolescence throughout adulthood a person is preoccupied with sex and reproduction.  The adolescent experiences rising hormone levels and the sex drive and hunger drives become very strong. Ideally, the adolescent will rely on the ego to help think logically through these urges without taking actions that might be damaging. An adolescent might learn to redirect their sexual urges into safer activity such as running, for example. Quieting the Id with the Superego can lead to feeling overly self-conscious and guilty about these urges. Hopefully, it is the ego that is strengthened during this stage and the adolescent uses reason to manage urges.

Issues with this theory

SEXIST, that it is very difficult to test scientifically. How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood?

what did Erickson believe

that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the Id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life.

erik erikson’s psychosocial stages

1. Trust vs. mistrust (0-1): the infant must have basic needs met in a consistent way in order to feel that the world is a trustworthy place

2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-2): mobile toddlers have newfound freedom they like to exercise and by being allowed to do so, they learn some basic independence

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5): preschoolers like to initiate activities and emphasize doing things “all by myself”

4. Industry vs. inferiority (6-11): school aged children focus on accomplishments and begin making comparisons between themselves and their classmates

5. Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence): teenagers are trying to gain a sense of identity as they experiment with various roles, beliefs, and ideas

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood): in our 20s and 30s we are making some of our first long-term commitments in intimate relationships

7. Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood): the 40s through the early 60s we focus on being productive at work and home and are motivated by wanting to feel that we’ve made a contribution to society

8. Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood): we look back on our lives and hope to like what we see-that we have lived well and have a sense of integrity because we lived according to our beliefs.

Issues with Erikson’s theroy

criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all

Pavlov’s discovery

his laboratory dogs produced as they ate, he noticed that they actually began to salivate before the food arrived as the researcher walked down the hall and toward the cage.

The dogs knew that the food was coming because they had learned to associate the footsteps with the food. The key word here is “learned”. A learned response is called a “conditioned” response. Pavlov began to experiment with this “psychic” reflex. He began to ring a bell, for instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell

becomes pavlov’s jardon= condtioned response

Watson and behaviorism

He believed that parents could be taught to help shape their children’s behavior and tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with his famous experiment with an 18 month old boy named “Little Albert”. Watson sat Albert down and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him

. Watson knew that one of our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he introduced one of Albert’s favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced. Watson filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve any outcomes they desired, if they would only follow his advice

Thorndike

The law of effect suggest that we will repeat an action if it is followed by a good effect.

Pigeon followed the action of spinning in a circle because it was followed by a treat

Skinner’s experiment

Skinner believed that we learn best when our actions are reinforced. For example, a child who cleans his room and is reinforced (rewarded) with a big hug and words of praise is more likely to clean it again than a child whose deed goes unnoticed.Skinner believed that almost anything could be reinforcing.

A reinforcer is anything following a behavior that makes it more likely to occur again. It can be something intrinsically rewarding (called intrinsic or primary reinforcers), such as food or praise, or it can be something that is rewarding because it can be exchanged for what one really wants (such as using money to buy a cookie). Such reinforcers are referred to as secondary reinforcers or extrinsic reinforcers.

Adding= giving a cookie- postice reinforcment

taking away= turning off alarm clock-negative reinforcement

The schedule of reinforcement has an impact on how long a behavior continues after reinforcement is discontinued. So a parent who has rewarded a child’s actions each time may find that the child gives up very quickly if a reward is not immediately forthcoming. A lover who is warmly regarded intermittently may continue to seek out his or her partner’s attention long after the partner has tried to break up.

Bandura’s child theory

 He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others

Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation. Sometimes, particularly when we do not know what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others

Sometimes we do things because we’ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement

Bandura’s chid-parent theory

suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings.

our surroundings. There is interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us. This concept is called reciprocal determinism.

Piaget

He believed that children’s intellectual skills change over time that that maturation rather than training brings about that change. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.

we are continuously trying to maintain cognitive equilibrium or a balance or cohesiveness in what we see and what we know. Children have much more of a challenge in maintaining this balance because they are constantly being confronted with new situations, new words, new objects, etc. When faced with something new, a child may either fit it into an existing framework (schema) and match it with something known (assimilation) such as calling all animals with four legs “doggies” because he or she knows the word doggie, or expand the framework of knowledge to accommodate the new situation (accommodation) by learning a new word to more accurately name the animal. This is the underlying dynamic in our own cognition.

Piagets stages of development

For about the first two years of life, the child experiences the world primarily through their senses and motor skills. Piaget referred to this type of intelligence as sensorimotor intelligence. During the preschool years, the child begins to master the use of symbols or words and is able to think of the world symbolically but not yet logically. This stage is the preoperational stage of development. The concrete operational stage in middle childhood is marked by an ability to use logic in understanding the physical world. In the final stage, the formal operational stage the adolescent learns to think abstractly and to use logic in both concrete and abstract ways.

problems with piagets theory

overemphasizing the role that physical maturation plays in cognitive development and in underestimating the role that culture and interaction (or experience) plays in cognitive development. Looking across cultures reveals considerable variation in what children are able to do at various ages. Piaget may have underestimated what children are capable of given the right circumstances.

Vygosky’s theory

he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others. His sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities.

He believed that through guided participation known as scaffolding, with a teacher or capable peer, a child can learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the zone of proximal development. Have you ever taught a child to perform a task? Maybe it was brushing their teeth or preparing food

Brofenbrunner’s theory

provides a model of human development that addresses its many influences. Brofenbrenner recognized that human interaction is influenced by larger social forces and that an understanding of those forces is essential for understanding an individual. The individual is impacted by microsystems such as parents or siblings; those who have direct, significant contact with the person.

The mesosystem includes larger organizational structures such as school, the family, or religion. These institutions impact the microsystems just described. For example, the religious teachings and traditions may guide the child’s family’s actions or create a climate that makes the family feel stigmatized and this indirectly impacts the child’s view of self and others. 

 And the community is influenced by macrosystems which are cultural elements such as global economic conditions, war, technological trends, values, philosophies, and a society’s responses to the global community. In sum, a child’s experiences are shaped by larger forces such as the family, schools, and religion, and culture. All of this occurs in an historical context or chronosystem. Bronfenbrenner’s model helps us combine each of the other theories described above and gives us a perspective that brings it all together.

What is the first step in studying human development?

Description – such as describing infant motor skills (e.g., Gesell’s study)

What is the goal of developmental theories?

To explain why and how we change over time.

What stage does Freud believe continues through adulthood?

The Genital Stage.

What is Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development?

Formal Operational Thought.

Why is the study of human development multidisciplinary?

To provide a well-rounded understanding through collaborative research.

What does “socioeconomic status” include?

Education, income, and occupation.

What values do working-class parents typically emphasize?

Obedience and conformity.

What values do middle-class parents typically emphasize?

Independence and initiative.

What is ethnocentrism?

Believing one’s culture is superior.

What is cultural relativity?

Understanding cultures from their own perspective.

What is confirmation bias?

Tendency to seek evidence that confirms our beliefs.

What makes science different from personal knowledge?

It is falsifiable and systematic.

Francis Galton

studied twins; coined "nature vs. nurture."

Informed consent

: Participants must be fully informed about a study and voluntarily agree to participate.

Confidentiality

Researchers must protect personal information and not disclose it without permission.

Deception & debriefing

Deception may be used in studies, but participants must be fully informed afterward in a process called debriefing.

Milgram Experiment

A controversial study on obedience involving fake shocks; raised important ethical concerns in psychology.

What is the foundation of science?

Observation—systematic and intentional study of the natural world.

What are the two main types of psychological research?

Experimental and correlational.

What are confounds?

Factors other than the independent variable that may affect the dependent variable.

What is random assignment and why is it important?

It's the random placement of participants into groups to ensure they are similar, eliminating confounding variables.

How does a double-blind procedure help reduce bias?

Neither the participant nor the experimenter knows who is in which group, reducing placebo effects and expectations.

What does the correlation coefficient (r) represent?

The direction and strength of a correlation; ranges from -1 to +1.

Why does correlation not imply causation?

: Because a third variable could influence both, or the direction of the relationship may be unclear.

What is qualitative research?

Research that explores phenomena in depth using non-numerical data like observations or personal stories.

What is participant observation?

The researcher immerses themselves in a group to observe behaviors directly.

What is a case study?

An in-depth study of a single person or situation.

What is narrative analysis?

Analyzing people's stories and the way they tell them to understand psychological themes

Why can’t researchers always use experimental designs?

Due to ethical, practical, or financial limitations.

What makes a study unethical or impractical to experiment with?

When it involves conditions like trauma, brain injury, or poverty that can’t be ethically assigned.

Why is understanding research methods important?

It helps you critically evaluate scientific claims and apply evidence-based thinking in life.

What is internal validity?

The degree to which a study allows for unambiguous causal inferences.

\What is external validity?

The degree to which study findings can be generalized to settings and samples outside the study.

Why is it difficult to achieve high internal and external validity in one study?

Because controlling variables for internal validity often creates artificial environments, reducing real-world generalizability.

What is ecological validity?

The extent to which an effect is observed under typical, everyday life conditions.

What is the experience-sampling method (ESM)?

A technique that collects self-reports from participants throughout their daily lives about their current thoughts, feelings, and context.\

• Smartphones allow for digital, time-stamped data collection, replacing paper questionnaires and electronic watches.

What is the day reconstruction method (DRM)?

A method where participants recall and report the previous day's events in a structured way.

: What is the Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR)?

A device that periodically records ambient sound snippets from a participant’s daily life for behavioral research.

What is ambulatory physiological monitoring?

Monitoring biological signals (e.g., heart rate, cortisol) in real-world settings using portable devices.

• Even mild daily emotions can measurably affect heart function in vulnerable individuals