Week 2 - Pre-Socratics, Sophists, and Socrates
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What is the philosophical method?
The systematic use of critical reasoning to try to find answers to fundamental questions about reality, morality, and knowledge
What is a fundamental idea?
An idea upon which other ideas depend and that logically supports other beliefs
What is philosophy’s greatest practical benefit?
It gives us the intellectual wherewithal to improve our lives by improving our philosophy of life
What is philosophy’s greatest theoretical benefit?
Understanding for its own sake; we want to know how the world works
What is metaphysics?
The study of reality
What is epistemology?
The philosophical study of knowledge
What is axiology?
The study of value, including both aesthetic value and moral value
What is ethics?
The study of morality using the methods of philosophy
What is logic?
The study of correct reasoning
What is the Socratic method?
Question-and-answer dialogue in which propositions are methodically scrutinised to uncover the truth
What is it to think philosophically?
To bring your powers of critical reasoning to bear on fundamental questions
What is an argument?
A group of statements in which one of them, the conclusion, is supported by the others, the premises
What is a statement/claim?
An assertion that something is or is not the case and is therefore the kind of utterance that is either true or false
What is a conclusion?
In an argument, the statement being supported by the premises
What is a premise?
A statement that supports the conclusion of an argument
What must a good argument have?
Solid logic
True premises
What is a deductive argument?
An argument intended to give logical conclusive support to its conclusion
What is an inductive argument?
An argument intended to give probable support to its conclusion
What does it mean for an argument to be valid?
It is a deductive argument where there is no way for the premises to be true while the conclusion is false
What does it mean for an argument to be strong?
It is an inductive argument that lends very probable support to its conclusion
What is a sound argument?
A valid deductive argument with true premises
What is a cogent argument?
A strong inductive argument with true premises
What are the valid argument forms?
Modus ponens and modus tollens
What is the modus ponens form?
If p, then q
p
Therefore, q
What is the modus tollens form?
If p, then q
Not q
Therefore, not p
What are the invalid argument forms?
Affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent
What is the affirming the consequent form?
If p, then q
q
Therefore, p
What is the denying the antecedent form?
If p, then q
Not p
Therefore, not q
What is an independent premise?
A premise that gives independent support to the conclusion without the help of any other premises
What is a dependent premise?
Premises that, taken separately, are weak, but together constitute a plausible reason for accepting the conclusion
What are the steps for good philosophical reading?
Approach the text with an open mind
Read actively and critically
Identify the conclusion first, then the premises
Outline, paraphrase, or summarise the argument
Evaluate the argument and formulate a tentative judgment
What is a fallacy?
A common but bad argument
What is the straw man fallacy?
The fallacy of misrepresenting a person’s views so they can be more easily attacked or dismissed
What is the ad hominem fallacy?
The fallacy of rejecting a statement on the grounds that it comes from a particular person, not because the statement itself is false or dubious
What is the appeal to popularity fallacy?
The fallacy of arguing that a claim must be true not because it is backed by good reasons by simply because many people believe it
What is the genetic fallacy?
The fallacy of arguing that a statement can be judged true or false based on its source
What is the equivocation fallacy?
The fallacy of assigning two different meanings to the same significant word in an argument
What is the appeal to ignorance fallacy?
The fallacy of trying to prove something by appealing to what we don’t know → arguing that a claim is true because it hasn’t been proven false or false because it hasn’t been proved true
What is the false dilemma fallacy?
The fallacy or arguing erroneously that since there are only two alternatives to choose from, and one of them is unacceptable, the other one must be true
What is the begging the question fallacy?
The fallacy of trying to prove a conclusion by using that very same conclusion as support
What is the slippery slope fallacy?
The fallacy of arguing erroneously that a particular action should not be taken because it will lead inevitably to other actions resulting in some dire outcome
What is the composition fallacy?
The fallacy of arguing erroneously that what can be said of the parts can also be said of the whole
What is the division fallacy?
The fallacy of arguing erroneously that what can be said of the whole can be said of the parts
What is evidence?
Evidence is something that makes a statement more likely to be true
What is the danger of denying contrary evidence?
Denying contrary evidence thwarts any search for knowledge and stunts our understanding
What is the best cure for denying contrary evidence?
To make a conscious effort to look for opposing evidence
What is confirmation bias?
When we seek out and only use confirming evidence
What is motivated reasoning?
Reasoning for the purpose of supporting a predetermined conclusion, not to uncover the truth
What is the best cure for motivated reasoning?
Being reasonably sceptical if sources, especially ones that confirm your beliefs
Being wary of assessments of credibility of sources that contradict your beliefs → address bias
Giving opposing views a chance
Breaking out of the bubble → seeking alternative views
What is the availability error?
When we rely on evidence not because it’s trustworthy but because it’s memorable or striking
What is the Dunning-Kruger effect
The phenomenon of being ignorant of how ignorant we are → the dumber you are, the smarter you think you are
Who are the pre-Socratics?
The first philosophers, most of whom flourished before Socrates (fifth century B.C.)
What made the pre-Socratics the first philosophers of the world?
Their way of seeking answers rather than the answers themselves
Who was the first philosopher?
Thales
What was important task did Thales complete philosophically?
He predicted the solar eclipse of 585 B.C. without appeals to divine or other-worldly forces
What was Thales’ method?
Setting out to look for natural explanations for natural phenomena and insisting that accounts be as simple as possible
What did Thales posit as the best candidate for the ultimate substance?
Water
Who was the pupil and successor of Thales?
Anamixander
With what is Anamixander credited?
Drawing a map of the world, providing naturalistic accounts of the weather, and devising a model of the universe consistent with geometric principles
What was Anamixander’s main theory?
That things exist in opposition to each other and are in conflict with each member alternating between being overpowered and overpowering
How did Anaximander explain the appearance of things?
He thought everything came from a formless imperishable substance called apeiron
Which philosopher came up with logos?
Heraclitus
What is logos?
The principle, formula, or law of the world order
What was Heraclitus’ theory of the universe?
Every part of the universe flows, but behind the changing appearances, there is an unchanging pattern — the logos
What did the Pythagoreans do?
They taught about an immortal soul and reincarnation where the soul travels through death and rebirth through forms of humans, gods, or animals
Why was Parmenides important?
He systematically employed deductive argument and was the first outside mathematics to reason deductively and consistently from basic premises to interesting conclusions
What is rationalism?
The view that through unaided reason we can come to know what the world is like
What is empiricism?
The view that our knowledge of the empirical world comes solely from sense experience
What was central to Parmenides’ thinking?
That all things that we think exist are illusions and that only reason can reveal the truth
What was important about Zeno’s contributions?
He created dialectic arguing, a distinctive form of argument in which he states the proposition to be examined and draws out its implications revealing the proposition’s weaknesses
What is the main value of Parmenides’ thinking?
His method to let reason guide him where it may
Who first proposed ancient atomism?
Leucippus
Who expanded upon the proposed ancient atomism?
Democritus
What is ancient atomism?
The theory that reality consists of an infinite number of minute, indivisible bits called atoms moving randomly in an infinite void, or empty space
Who were sophists?
Itinerant professors who, for a fee, would teach a range of subjects that could be of practical or intellectual benefit
What is rhetoric?
The art of verbal persuasion
What is relativism?
The doctrine that the truth about something depends on what persons or cultures believe
What is subjective relativism?
The notion that truth depends on what a person believes?
What is cultural relativism?
The idea that truth depends on what a culture believes
How did Plato dismantle subjective relativism?
If, according to subjective relativism, all held beliefs are equally true, then someone’s assertion that relativism is true is just as true as someone else’s assertion that relativism is false
How did Heraclitus conceive of the universe?
He thought the cosmos was eternal, without beginning or end, with a rational force — the logos — steering all things and operating according to its own logic
How did Parmenides conceive of the universe?
He thought reality consisted of the One, which is eternal, uniform, solid, perfect, and uncreated
What distinctions of importance did Parmenides make?
He distincted betweeen reason and the senses, and appearance and reality
How did Democritus oppose Parmenides?
He rejected that empty space was equivalent to nothing and instead posited the void
What was Democritus’ view of the world?
He thought that things happen in a particular way because the blind machinery of nature makes them happen that way → no invocation of deities or agents of design to explain the universe
How did Sophists teach about the world?
They favoured a naturalistic explanation, downplaying conventinal accounts attributing causes to the gods
What did the Sophists teach about morality and legality?
That moral beliefs and legal codes were determined neither by the gods nor nature, they were human inventions and varied between societies
Who was the leading proponent of subjective relativism?
The Sophist Protagoras
What were the steps to the Socratic method as used by Socrates?
Someone poses a question about the meaning of a concept
Socrates’ companion gives an answer
Socrates raises questions about the answer, proving that the answer is inadequate
The companion offers a second answer
Steps 3 and 4 are repeated several times revealing the companion does not know what they thought they did
What is reductio ad absurdum?
An argument form in which a set of statements is assumed, and absurd or false statements are derived from the set, showing that at least one of the original statements must be rejected
What were the difference between Socrates and the Sophists?
Socrates thought of his method as a way to pursue the truth, not to win rhetorical victories
He was not a relativist
Socrates charged nothing and denied that he taught anything, asserting instead that he merely guided people to discover wisdom within themselves
What were Socrates’ ideas about the soul?
Nothing in this life is more important than the care of the soul → your soul is harmed or helped by your own actions: doing wrong damages your soul, and doing right benefits it
What is Socrates’ main thesis?
Virtue is knowledge, with knowledge referring to both knowing what virtue is and knowing how to apply that understanding to life
What is Socrates’ most famous dictum and what does it mean?
‘The unexamined life is not worth living’ → it’s not worth living because it harms the soul and makes life unsatisfying
With what was Socrates’ charged?
Disrespecting the gods, acknowledging new gods, and corrupting the youth of the city
Why is Socrates important?
He is one of philosophy’s greatest minds and changed the course of philosophical inquiry, influencing Plato and Aristotle
What was Socrates’ personality like?
He was passionate, self-controlled, down-to-earth, propelled by concern for the spiritual self, plain-spoken, and intellectually brilliant
For Socrates, what is a clear sign of an unhealthy soul?
Exclusive pursuit of social status, wealth, power, and pleasure