AP LANG Rhetorical Devices Terms

These terms should be of use to you in answering the multiple-choice questions, analyzing prose passages, and composing your essays.

Allegory

The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.  

Alliteration

The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in “she sells sea shells”). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage. 

Allusion

A direct or indirect reference to something that is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place,  or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion. 

Ambiguity

The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage. 

Analogy

A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging. 

Antecedent

 The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. A question from the 2001 AP test as an example  follows:   “But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that it is never  absolutely novel to the meanest of minds; it exists eternally, by way of germ of latent principle, in the lowest as  in the highest, needing to be developed but never to be planted.”  

 The antecedent of “it” (bolded) is...? [answer: “all truth”] 

Antithesis

the opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite. 

Aphorism

A terse statement of known authorship that expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is  unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author’s point. 

Apostrophe

 figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: /  England hath need of thee.” Another example is Keats’ “Ode to a Grecian Urn,” in which Keats addresses the urn itself:  “Thou still unravished bride of quietness.” Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object addressed. 

Caricature

a verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a person’s distinctive physical features or other characteristics. 

Colloquial/Colloquialism

The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing,  colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects. 

Conceit

 A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.

Connotation

The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas,  emotions, or attitudes. 

Denotation

The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. (Example: the denotation of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.) 

Diction

Related to style, diction refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author’s diction (for example, formal or informal,  ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author’s purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style. 

Euphemism

 From the Greek for “good speech,” euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of euphemism.

Extended Metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

Figure of Speech 

A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement. 

Homily

This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice. 

Hyperbole

A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is “overshoot.”)  Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. The opposite of hyperbole is understatement. 

Imagery

 The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman’s cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition,  this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP language exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and the effect of this imagery. 

Irony/Ironic

The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major types of  irony used in language:  

 (1) verbal irony – when the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s) meaning  

 (2) situational irony – when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and  readers think ought to happen is not what does happen  

(3) dramatic irony – when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work. 

Litotes(pronounced almost like “little tee”)

(pronounced almost like “little tee”) – a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: “Not a bad idea,” “Not many,” “It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain” (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye). 

Metaphor

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other,  suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought-provoking, and meaningful. 

Metonymy

 (mtn m) A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,” metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example, a news release  that claims “the White House declared” rather than “the President declared” is using metonymy; Shakespeare uses it to  signify the male and female sexes in As You Like It: “doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat.” The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact. 

Onomatopoeia

 A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note  the effect. 

Polysyndeton

uses repeated conjunctions to emphasize words or phrases in a sentence For example:"We went for a walk and fed the ducks and had some ice cream and rode the Ferris wheel"

Asyndeton

 the omission or absence of a conjunction between parts of a sentence For example:“Reduce, reuse, recycle”

Epistrophe

 the repetition of a word at the end of successive clauses or sentences. For example: "Keeps going. And going. And going"

Juxtaposition 

the fact of two things being seen or placed close together with a contrasting effect. For example: The juxtaposition of Cinderella's goodness with her wicked stepsisters

Oxymoron

From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include “jumbo shrimp” and “cruel kindness.” This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron. 

Paradox

 A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. (Hamlet: ''I must be cruel, only to be kind'') 

Parallelism

Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning “beside one  another.” It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities is an example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch of incredulity....”) The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.

Anaphora

A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines  or sentences. MLK used anaphora in his famous “I Have a Dream” speech (1963).

Parody

A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. It  exploits peculiarities of an author’s expression (propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.)  Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but a poorly-written parody offers only ineffectual imitation.  Usually, an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don’t require knowledge of the original. 

Personification

 A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader. 

Point of View

 In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view, and many subdivisions within those.  

(1) first-person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character.  

(2) third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,” and “it.” There are two main  subdivisions to be aware of:  

a. third-person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of  any or all characters  

b. third person limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters.  

In addition, be aware that the term point of view carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze the author’s point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author’s attitude. 

Repetition

 The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause,  sentence, or grammatical pattern. 

Sarcasm

From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to ridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel. 

Satire

A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature,  hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer’s goal, but good satire,  often humorous, is thought-provoking and insightful about the human condition. Some modern satirists include Joseph  Heller (Catch 22) and Kurt Vonnegut (Cat’s Cradle, Player Piano). 

Symbol/Symbolism

 Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually, a symbol is something concrete -- such as an object, action, character, or scene – that represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols into three categories:  

(1) natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge).  

(2) conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scale of justice for lawyers).  

(3) literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are more generally recognized. However, a work’s symbols may be more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of Darkness.  On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing that abstraction. 

Synecdoche

a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to represent a part. Examples: To refer to a boat as a “sail”; to refer to a car as “wheels”; to refer to the violins, violas, etc.  in an orchestra as “the strings.” **Different than metonymy, in which one thing is represented by another thing that is  commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e., referring to a monarch as “the crown” or  the President as “The White House.”

Syntax

The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of words, while diction refers to individual words. In the multiple-choice section of the AP exam, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects. 

Theme

The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly state, especially in expository or argumentative writing.

Thesis

In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively,  and thoroughly a writer has proven the thesis. 

Tone

Similar to mood, tone describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author’s tone. Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal,  ornate, sardonic, somber, etc. 

Understatement

the ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole. Example: Jonathan Swift’s A Tale  of a Tub: “Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse.” 

Wit

 in modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous while suggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement. Historically, wit originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally, it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an answer that demanded the same quick perception.