psych 1010 - exam #1

Scientific method:

a way of learning about the world through collecting observations, developing theories to explain them, and using the theories to make predictions

Hypothesis

a testable (observed, measured) prediction

biopsychosocial model

a means of explaining behaviour as a product of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors

what were the 4 humours/ fluids believed to be (ancient greeks and romans)

sanguine (blood), choleric (yellow bile), melancholic (black bile), and phlegmatic (phlegm)

what tendency does sanguine (blood) represent

a tendency to be impulsive, pleasure seeking, and charismatic

what tendnecy does choleric (yellow bile) represent

a tendency to be ambitious, energetic, and a bit aggressive

what tendency does melancholic (black bile) represent

a tendency to be independent, a perfectionist, and a bit introverted

what tendency does phlegmatic (phlegm) represent

a tendency to be quiet, relaxed, and content with life

define psychophysics (fechner) and whats an example for it

the study of the relationship between the physical world and the mental representation of that world

ex. imagine you are holding a one-pound (0.45 kg) weight in your right hand and a five-pound (2.27 kg) weight in your left hand. Obviously, your left hand will feel the heavier weight, but that is not what interested Fechner. What if a researcher places a quarter-pound weight (113 g) in each hand, resting on top of the weight that is already there? Fechner wanted to know which of the quarter-pound weights would be perceived as heavier

define localization of brain function

the idea that certain parts pf the brain control specific mental abilities and personality characteristics 

define phrenology 

the idea that mental capacities and personalities could be measured by the contours, bumps, and ridges distributed across the surface of the skull

define psychoanalysis

a psychological approach that attempts to explain how behaviour and personality are influenced by unconscious processes

define and provide an example for introspection (Wundt)

introspection, meaning to look within

ex. it required a volunteer to experience a stimulus and then report each individual sensation they could identify 

define functionalism

the study of the purpose and function of behaviour and conscious experience

what is reaction time (wundt) and an example

• developed as a way of measuring mental effort

• a study was done of two metals balls swinging and the volunteers required about 1/8 of a second to react to the sound

what element and qualities are connected to blood 

blood is associated with the air element and its considered hot and wet

what element and qualities are connected to phlegm (phlegmatic)

phlegm is linked to water and is considered cold and wet

what element and qualities are connected to yellow bile (choleric)

yellow bile is associated with fire and is considered hot and dry

what element and qualities are connected to black bile (melancholic)

black bile is tied to the earth, its considered cold and dry

what complexion was associated with hot and dry

a ruddy complexion

what complexion was associated with cold and wet

a paler complexioon

what is a theory

• an explanation for a broad range of observations

• it generates new hypotheses and integrates numerous findings into a coherent whole

• it is built from hypotheses that are repeatedly tested and confirmed

what is an opinion

• opinions do not need to be testable or logical

• often based in personal experience 

why must a theory be falsifiable

• to ensure science is self-correcting, meaning bad ideas do not last long within science

• it should be precise enough that it could be able to be supported and or proved false with new evidence

what s the issue with saying a hypotheses is proven/disproven

• it does not leave room for it to be shown otherwise (an experiment can either support or refute a theory/hypotheses)

• it contradicts the key element of falsification and self-correction

who proposed the biopsychosocial model and in what year

George Engel in 1977

difference between the (1) biopsychosocial model and the (2) biomedical model

1. is a means of explaining behaviour as a product of biological, psychological, and socialcultural factors

2. believes that illness as having purely biological/physical causes and ignoring psychological/social factors

what is the Edwin Smith papyrus

it contains the oldest known descriptions of signs and symptoms of injuries, such as spinal injuries

it contains 48 cases

why is the Edwin Smith papyrus so significant to psychology

it contains the world's first known detailed descriptions of the brain's anatomy, including its convolutions and meninges; it provides the earliest evidence of correlating brain damage with specific motor and sensory effects, potentially describing aphasia; and it represents the oldest documented use of inductive reasoning in medicine, a fundamental aspect of psychological and scientific inquiry

define natural selection (Darwin - 1958)

The process by which favourable traits become increasingly common in a population of interbreeding individuals, while traits that are unfavourable become less common

what did Broca discover about brain damage (+ MIT)

• theres a specific link between producing spoken language and suffered brain damage in a specific area of the left frontal lobes of the brain (near the patients left temple) - now known as Broca’s area

• melodic intonation therapy (MIT) which has shown that patients with that specific injury can sing using fluent articulated words, despite not being able to speak them- this suggest that language function may be taken over by the corresponding area of the right hemisphere

define Broca’s aphasia

condtion resulting from damage to Brocas area, generates difficulty with speech

define Wernicke’s aphasia

this is problems with comprehending language

define aphasia

brain damage that causes difficulties with language function

what case inspired Freuds psychanalysis and what illness did it address

• it was inspired using hypnosis to trat his won patients, specifically hysterical paralysis (where an individual loses feeling and control in a specific body part despite the absence of any known neurological damage or disease)

who established the first psychology lab in 1879

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) established the first laboratory dedicated to studying human behaviour in 1879 at the University of Leipzig

what experiment is Watson famous for

Watson was a behavourist, he conducted the little Albert experiment, where he conditioned a child to fear white rats through emotional responses.

Watson was famous for his belief that all behaviour could ultimately be explained through conditioning

what was Watson’s core belief

• his famous quote “"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors”

• that he could shape any individual's personality through environmental control

what is Pavlov (1884 - 1936) known for

• hes a russian psychologist who won the 1904 noble prize for his research on the digestive system, thats how he discovered classical conditioning 

• he noticed that dogs began to salivate when the resarch technician entered the room and turned on the device that distributed meat powder

• this occured before the delivery of food

• this suggested that the dogs had learned an association between the technician, machine noises, and the later appearance of food

how did Pavlov (1884 - 1936) inspire behaviourism

• his research provided the foundation for behaviourism 

• his observation quickly led to more focused research on the mechanisms of learning

• also, Watson believed that all behaviour could be explained through conditioning 

define Thorndikes law of effect

• the frequency of different behaviours could be changed based on whether or not that behaviour led to positive consequences or “satisfaction”

• his findings showed that certain actions were more likely to be repeated if they lead to “satisfaction”

what is B. F. Skinner known for

his development of radical behaviourism and how organisms responds to rewards and punishments, noting that we tend to repeat actions that are rewarded and avoid actions that lead to punishment

which psychologist is considered the founder/father of social psychology

Kurt Lewin (1890 - 1947)

what does Lewin suggest about behaviour

• behaviour is a function of the individual and the environment, or, if you’re a fan of formulas (and who isn’t?), B = f{I,E}.

• all behaviours could be predicted and explained through understanding how an individual with a specific set of traits would respond in a context that involved a specific set of conditions.

what does Gestalt psychology emphasize

• an approach to perception that emphasizes a specific principle regarding how we organize sensory information

• "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts"

• it argues that individual parts of an image may have little meaning on their own, but when combined, the whole takes on a significant perceived form

• Example: If you were handed an apple, you would not think, "Round, red, has a stem..."; you would simply think, "This is an apple"

what is the computer anaology of the mind in cognitive psychology

• the mind is the software of the brain

• The invention of the computer provided psychologists with a tangible analogy for understanding and talking about the complex operations of the human mind

• he analogy suggests that the brain processes information in a way similar to how a computer operates, with abstract mental processes (like thinking, memory, and language) serving as the "software" running on the neurological "hardware" of the brain

name two key figures in humanistic psychology

• Maslow (1908 - 1970)  and Rogers (1902 - 1987)

what does Maslow emphasize 

• The positive aspects of humanity and the factors that lead to a productive and fulfilling life

• human needs are organized as a hierarchy with basic needs at the bottom and personal fulfillment and other uniquely human characteristics at the top

• At the highest point of this model lies self-actualization , the point at which a person reaches his or her full potential as a creative, deep-thinking, and accepting human being

what does Rogers emphasize 

• “the curious paradox is that when i accept myself just as I am, then I can change”

• humans strive to develop a sense of self and are motivated to personally grow and fulfill their potential

• people are basically good, and given the right environment their personality will develop fully and normally.

• Rogers believed that people possess immense inner resources for growth and resilience, and a desire for self-actualization , which is the drive to grow and fulfill your potential

define humanistic psychology

the unique aspects of each individual human, each person’s freedom to act, his or her rational thought, and the belief that humans are fundamentally different from other animals

what does Hebb’s law state

• cells in the brain change over the course of learning

• He observed that when a brain cell consistently stimulates another cell, metabolic and physical changes occur to strengthen this relationship (cells that fire together wire together)

• memory—a behaviour that we can measure and that affects so many parts of our lives—is actually related to activity occurring at the cellular level

what was Wilder Penfield’s (1891 - 1971) contribution to neurosurgery and psychology 

neurosurgery

• developed and utilized a surgical procedure to treat patients suffering from epileptic seizures

• achieved this by electrically stimulating specific areas of the patient's brain while the patient was under local anesthetic

• Based on the patients' reports of the sensations they experienced after each burst of electricity, Penfield created precise maps of the sensory and motor (movement) cortices in the brain

psychology

• His work showed that people's subjective experiences can be represented in the brain. For example, in a famous anecdote, a patient undergoing stimulation reported smelling burnt toast, which helped Penfield locate the origin of her seizures

define validity

• Refers to whether a measurement tool actually measures what it claims to measure.

define reliability

• Refers to the consistency and stability of a measure over time.

• Test-retest reliability: Measures are consistent over multiple administrations.

• Alternate-forms reliability: Different versions of the same test yield similar scores.

• Inter-rater reliability: Consistent scores are obtained when different observers measure the same event.

define objective measurements

the measure of an entity or behaviour that, within an allowed margin of error, is consistent across instruments and observers

define genes

the basic units of heredity; genes are responsible for guiding the process of creating the proteins that make up our physical structures and regulate development and physiological processes throughout the lifespan

Define DNA

a molecule formed in a double-helix shape that contains four nucleotides: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine

define epigenetics

study of changes in gene expression that occur as a result of experience and that do not alter the genetic code

what is CRSPR

a technique that allows genetic material to be removed, added, or altered in specific locations of the genome

define genotype

the genetic makeup of an organism—the unique set of genes that comprise that individual’s genetic code

define phenotype

the physical traits and behavioural characteristics that show genetic variation, such as eye colour, the shape and size of facial features, intelligence, and even personality

chromosomes

• 23 pairs

• structures in the cellular nucleus that are lined with all of the genes an individual inherits

define homozygous

If two corresponding genes at a given location on a pair of chromosomes are the same, they are referred to as homozygous

define heterozygous

If two corresponding genes at a given location on a pair of chromosomes differ, they are heterozygous

define monozygotic

identical, from single egg (ovum)

define dizygotic

fraternal, two eggs fertilized by two sperm

define heritability

degree to which genetic differences contribute to individual differences in a behaviour/trait in a population

what is behavioural genomics

the study of DNA and the ways in which specific genes are related to behaviour

define behavioural genetics

the study of how genes and the environment influence behaviour

heritability

a statistic, expressed as a number between zero and one, that represents the degree to which genetic differences between individuals contribute to individual differences in a behaviour or trait found in a population

A heritability of 0 means that genes do not contribute to individual differences in a trait, whereas a heritability of 1.0 indicates that genes account for all individual differences in a trait

evolution

change in frequency of genes occurring in a population over time

evolutionary psychology

attempts to explain human behaviours based on the beneficial function(s) they may have served in our species’ development.

neurons

one of the major types of cells found in the nervous system, that are responsible for sending and receiving messages throughout the body

what are the main parts of a neauron

• cell body (soma) - he part of a neuron that contains the nucleus that houses the cell’s genetic material

• dendrites - small branches radiating from the cell body that receive messages from other cells and transmit those messages toward the rest of the cell

• axon hillock - cells will travel across the neuron to the base of the cell body to the axon hillock

• axon - transports information in the form of electrochemical reactions from the cell body to the end of the neuron

• axon terminals - bulb-like extensions filled with vesicles (little bags of molecules)

• neurotransmitters - the chemicals that function as messengers allowing neurons to communicate with each other

sensory vs motor neurons

Sensory neurons carry information toward the spinal cord and the brain, whereas motor neurons send messages to muscles of the body. The interneuron links the sensory and motor neurons.

What is the function of the cell body (soma)?

It contains the nucleus which houses the cell’s genetic material and synthesizes the proteins necessary for the neuron to function

What are glial cells?

They are specialized support cells of the nervous system that mount immune responses, remove waste, and synchronize the activity of neurons

What is myelin?

A fatty sheath that insulates axons, resulting in increased speed (up to 150 m/s) and efficiency of neural communication

What happens if myelin is damaged?

When myelin breaks down, as in multiple sclerosis, it impairs the ability of axons to transmit information, leading to the affected groups of brain structures being unable to work as a functional network

What is the resting potential?

The relatively stable state when the neuron is not firing, characterized by a net negative charge inside the axon (approximately -70 millivolts)

What is an action potential?

A wave of electrical activity that starts at the axon and rapidly travels down its length once the cell's firing threshold (e.g., -55 mV) is reached

What is the all-or-none principle?

it dictates that individual nerve cells fire at the same strength every time an action potential occurs; a neuron cannot "sort of" fire

How does the nervous system communicate a strong sensation (e.g., a bright light)?

The strength of the sensation is determined by the rate at which nerve cells fire and the number of nerve cells that are stimulated (not by a larger individual action potential)

What is the synapse?

An area consisting of a neuron's axon terminals (presynaptic cell) and a neighboring neuron's dendrites (postsynaptic cell), separated by a microscopic space

How do neurotransmitters work with receptors?

A lock-and-key analogy is used: neurotransmitters must have specific molecular shapes to bind to corresponding receptors on the postsynaptic cell

What is the difference between excitatory and inhibitory effects?

Excitatory effects make the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire an action potential, while inhibitory effects make it less likely to fire by causing the membrane potential to become more negative

What is reuptake?

A process where neurotransmitter molecules released into the synapse are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron, serving as a recycling system

What is Glutamate?

The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brains of vertebrates, involved in processes like forming new memories

What is GABA?

the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter of the nervous system, which prevents neurons from generating action potentials and facilitates sleep

What is Acetylcholine (ACh)?

A widespread neurotransmitter important for voluntary movement (at neuromuscular junctions), attention, and memory

What is Dopamine?

A monoamine neurotransmitter involved in mood, control of voluntary movement, and processing of rewarding experiences

What is Serotonin?

A monoamine involved in regulating mood, sleep, aggression, and appetite

What is neurogenesis?

The formation of new neurons. While scientists once believed we were born with all our brain cells, neurogenesis occurs in limited regions, such as the hippocampus

What is neuroplasticity?

the brain’s capacity to change and rewire itself based on individual experience

What causes a neuron to fire?

If enough positively charged ions rush into the cell and push the charge past the cell’s firing threshold (e.g., -55 mV), the neuron initiates an action potential

What is the "refractory period"?

This is the brief period (normally 2–3 milliseconds) in which a neuron cannot fire again while it adjusts back to its normal resting potential

What happens when the action potential reaches the end of the neuron?

It arrives at the axon terminals, which triggers the release of neurotransmitters

What are the two main effects a neurotransmitter can have?

It can be excitatory (making the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire by making its potential less negative) or inhibitory (making it less likely to fire by making its potential more negative)

What is the presynaptic cell?

The presynaptic cell is the neuron that releases its neurotransmitters into the synapse

What is the postsynaptic cell?

The postsynaptic cell is the neuron that receives neurotransmitters from the presynaptic cell