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Skill
The learned ability to bring about predetermined results with the minimum outlay of time energy or both
Ace face
Aesthetically pleasing, consistent, efficient, fluent, accurate, controlled, economical
Open and closed skills
An open skill is performed when the sporting environment is unpredictable and changes frequently
A close skill is performed in a predictable environment
Gross and fine skills
A gross skill involves using large muscle groups
A fine skill involves using smaller more intricate muscle groups
Self paced or externally paced skills
During a self paced skill, the performer controls the speed at which the skill is performed
In an externally paced skill the performer has no control over when to start the skill or how fast it might be performed
Discreet continuous and serial skills
Discrete skills have a clear beginning and end
Continuous skills have no clear beginning and end
Serial skills are discrete skills linked together
High and low organisation skills
A skill that is easily broken down into sub routines is called a low organised skill
A highly organised skill is not easily broken down into parts
Simple and complex skills
Simple skill needs limited decisions to be processed while the skill is being performed
A complex skill is one in which there are many decisions to be made and a high amount of information to process
Transfer of learning
The effect of the learning and performance of one skill on the learning and performance of another
Positive transfer and negative transfer
Positive transfer is when the learning of one skill helps the learning of another
Negative transfer is when learning one skill hinders the learning of another
Bilateral transfer
This happens when the learning of one skill is transferred onto the other side of the body
Zero transfer
Zero transfer is when the learning of one skill has no impact on the learning of another
Learning plateau
Appeared during performance when there are no signs of improvement and the performer does not appear to be getting any better and doing the task
This can be represented by a learning curve
The learning curve
It is split up into four stages;
Stage one; The rate of learning is slow and the performance level is poor as performers are in the cognitive stage
Stage two: rapid acceleration in the rate of learning as the performer has begun to master the task gaining success
Stage three: there is no improvement in the rate of learning and a plateau is reached
Stage four: Towards the end of the task possibly caused by fatigue the performance deteriorates
The drop of improvement and performance is referred to as drive reduction
Causes of the learning plateau
Lack of motivation
Bored
Coach
Limit of the ability
Target set too low
Fatigue
Solutions to the learning plateau
The task could be extended
The player might need to find a new coach
The coach could offer more praise and positive reinforcement
Rest could reduce fatigue
Greater variety to avoid Boredom
Explain the concept of the plateau so they understand why they have reached it
The performer could be given feedback
Whole practice
The task can be presented in its entirety with subroutines intact
When to use whole practice
This can be used in fast closed discrete simple and highly organised skills
It is fluent. It understands the demands of the skill. It establishes links between sub routines increases consistency and build an image of the skill.
It may cause over process of information it may be too demanding and cause fatigue
Whole part whole practice
Assessing the skill identifying a weakness to practice and then putting the skill back together again
When to use whole part whole practice
Having attempted the whole skill to gain feel the skill is then broken down into fast discrete skills that are hard to break down
The coach must identify the specific area of weakness and work on this before re-introducing the skill
It is beneficial as the coach can give feedback and correct errors. It gives motivation because of this and maintains feel of the skill in the link between subroutines.
The sub routines may not always be part of the whole skill. It can be more time-consuming and may require greater patience and perseverance.
Progressive part practice
When each part of the skill is added gradually
When to use progressive part practice
Sometimes referred to as chaining it links routines together in chronological order
Can only happen when the skill can be easily broken down, usually cereal and complex. It is beneficial for learning complex skills as pressure can be removed from the athlete
It reduces demand and increases focus on certain aspects. Lower fatigue increase chance of success increase confidence reduce danger.
It is time-consuming. You may neglect the feel of the whole skill and potential negative transfer if not built properly.
Different types of practice
Massed, distributed, Varied, Mental
Massed practice
No rest intervals
The athlete is well developed and you are working on simple discreet skills in a closed environment
It is beneficial for fine skills enable formation of motor programs through repetition increases fitness and is an efficient use of time
Little time for feedback often lead to fatigue, beginners will not be able to cope with demands
Distributed practice
Includes rest intervals
Worked well with beginners focusing on cereal and complex skills. This can also suit continuous athletes but breaks are needed.
It has reduced pressure is less dangerous and enables more coaching and feedback rest recovery and allows mental rehearsal
It can’t be time-consuming potential negative transfer and prohibits overlearning
Varied practice
Changing the practice type and practice drills
Often using team sports going for a massed practice to progressive practice due to changes of environment
Increases ability to adapt increases motivation and enjoyment build sub routines and develop schema
Can be time-consuming and potential negative transfer
Mental practice
Going over the skill in the mind without movement
Becomes increasingly popular with elite athletes
Can improve confidence motivation and reaction time will lower anxiety develops cognitive ability adaptable to the environment can be used by all and is introduced to distributed practice
May potentially bog the mind down and an athlete would need a calm environment
Learning
A permanent change of behaviour that occurs as a result of practice
The three stages of learning
The cognitive stage
The associative stage
The autonomous stage
The cognitive stage
The performer has to think carefully about their reactions
They have to think about how to copy the demonstrations and instructions from the coach
The performer relies on feedback and adopt a trial and error approach to learning
The technique appears bad
The associative stage
Likely to take a longer than the cognitive stage
Moving from a competent beginner to an accomplished performer
Lots of practice needed elements of trial and error might still be used and feedback might still be used but this becomes more internal
The autonomous stage
Reached through effective practice, although this must be continued for an athlete to remain here
Skills are fluent efficient and automatically undertaken
An athlete can focus on the finer requirements of the skill as the basics are seemed to be performed without thinking
The motor program is now fully developed helping in the fine control of the action
Types of feedback a coach can give
Positive
Negative
Extrinsic
Intrinsic
Knowledge of results
Knowledge of performance
Four types of guidance
Visual
Verbal
Manual
Mechanical
Visual guidance
Guidance that can be seen a demonstration for example would be visual guidance
The intention is to create a mental image for the athlete to use as a reference point
Can be given by a coach player or video and must be within the capabilities of the former
Verbal guidance
An explanation of the task
Nearly always used in conjunction with visual guidance during a demonstration
This should help the performer develop the correct mental image
Experienced players off of verbal guidance to teammates during practice and matches on technique tactics
Manual guidance
Manual guidance involves physical support
A coach supporting a gymnast during a vote or handstand, for example
Can be used to false response
This would occur because the coach is forcing the athlete into a correct position to help them learn the move
Mechanical guidance
A device or artificial aid that is used to help performance
This type of guidance is similar to manual guidance as it has many of the same advantages and disadvantages
Advantages and disadvantages of visual guidance
Can highlight a specific weakness
Tries to show how the skill should be performed
Create a mental image
Demonstrations can be difficult to execute correct
Too much information can cause confusion
Incorrect demonstration can impact negatively on learning
Advantages and disadvantages of verbal guidance
The coach can differentiate the language they used to suit the ability and knowledge level
This is a form of feedback. The coach can select which type is best suited.
Can lead to confusion due to language used
The performer may like concentration if feedback isn’t brief relevant and meaningful
Coaches can overload the performer with new instructions
Advantages and disadvantages of manual guidance
Can eliminate or reduce danger
Build confidence of the performer as they gain a better feel from the task
Reduced fear and anxiety
Performer can become reliant on this and therefore develop bad habits
The performer might feel they can’t do the task without support reducing confidence
It’s not always appropriate as some performers might find it uncomfortable
Advantages and disadvantages of mechanical guidance
Can build confidence even with the help they realise they can do it
Eliminate or reduces danger
Gives the performer a feel for the movement required
The mechanical guidance can interfere and disrupt the feel of the task
The performer depends on the guidance too much leading to a loss of confidence
Motivation can decrease
Operant conditioning
The use of reinforcement to ensure that correct responses are repeated
Fundamentally, it is based on people learning through trial and error
Positive and negative reinforcement
A pleasant stimulus after the correct response
Taking away an unpleasant stimulus after the correct response
Punishment
An unpleasant stimulus to prevent actions reoccurring
Observational learning
Attention
Retention
Motor production
Motivation
Attention
Make sure that athlete takes notice of the relevant cues
Make model loud bright and attractive there should be more memorable
Retention
Remembering the demonstration and being able to recall it
They must remember the key points to develop a memory system
Motor production
Having the mental and physical ability to do the task
The need for an athlete to be given a skill and task within their capabilities
Motivation
Having the drive to do the task
Athletes must want to copy the demonstration
Social development theory
Building up learning in stages based on the current level of performance
Performers learn by working with coaches known as more knowledgeable others
This is referred to as inter psychological learning
Once the external device has been learned, the performer may tweak it and this is called intra psychological learning
Intra psychological stage
He believed that the athlete uses the zone of proximal development (The next stage of learning based on the performers needs expectations and current level of performance)
Insight learning
Using experience and understanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill
The athletes are encouraged to think for themselves using existing sporting knowledge
This develops a greater sense of self satisfaction, Improved cognitive abilities, Increased confidence and improved understanding of the skill
