Earth Science

10

on earth, a kg of mass is in how many newtons?

1

on moon, a kg of mass is in how many newtons?

Nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, and water

the four common cycles in earth that supports life

The First Law of Thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy,

states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred from one form to another.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

states that the entropy of a closed system always increases over time.

"latitude"

refers to the angular distance, measured in degrees, north or south of the Equator.

are the imaginary lines that run east to west around the Earth, parallel to the Equator, marking these different latitudes.

"Parallels"

diff of longtitude and latitude

Latitude measures how far north or south a location is from the equator (0° latitude), while longitude measures how far east or west a location is from the prime meridian (0° longitude).

Isotopes

are distinct forms of an element that have the same number of protons (atomic number) but different numbers of neutrons (mass number)

Valence electrons

are the outermost electrons of an atom that are involved in chemical bonding.

atomic number

of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of its atom, defining which element it is.

Atomic mass

is the average mass of an atom of an element, considering all of its naturally occurring isotopes.

average atomic mass

of an element is a weighted average of the atomic masses of its naturally occurring isotopes, reflecting the abundance of each isotope in a sample

Metals

typically have valence electrons of 1, 2, or 3, often leading to the formation of positive ions (cations) by losing electrons.

Nonmetals

typically have valence electrons of 4 to 7, and tend to gain electrons to form negative ions (anions).

Ion

an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons.

Ionic bonds

involve the transfer of electrons between atoms, while covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms.

polar covalent bond

is a type of covalent bond where electrons are shared unequally between two atoms due to differing electronegativities

Igneous rocks

form from the cooling and solidification of molten rock (magma or lava).

Sedimentary rocks

are formed from the accumulation and cementation of sediments like sand, silt, and organic matter.

Metamorphic rocks

arise when existing rocks are transformed by heat, pressure, or chemical reactions.

The law of superposition

States that in undisturbed sedimentary rock layers, the oldest layer is at the bottom and the layers progressively get younger as you move up

The principle of original horizontality

states that sedimentary rock layers are initially deposited in a horizontal or near-horizontal position due to gravity's influence.

Unconformities

are essentially gaps in the geologic record, representing periods where rock layers were either eroded away or no new rocks were deposited. They form when there's a break in the continuous deposition of sedimentary rocks, either due to erosion removing existing layers or a period of non-deposition.

A disconformity

is an unconformity between parallel layers of sedimentary rocks. It is a specific type of unconformity where the layers are parallel.

nonconformity

is a boundary between sedimentary rocks and older igneous or metamorphic rocks. It is another specific type where sedimentary rocks lie on top of eroded igneous or metamorphic rocks.

Radiometric dating

is a method used to determine the age of materials, particularly rocks and fossils, by analyzing the decay of radioactive isotopes. It relies on the predictable rate at which unstable "parent" isotopes transform into stable "daughter" isotopes.

half-life

is the time it takes for half of the parent isotope atoms to decay into the daughter isotop

Carbon dating

is a method used to determine the age of organic materials (once-living things) by analyzing the amount of carbon-14 (a radioactive isotope of carbon) present

Index fossils

are fossils of organisms that existed for a relatively short period of geologic time but were widespread geographically. They are used to define and identify geologic periods and to correlate rock layers across different locations.

A bedding plane

is a planar surface that separates successive layers (beds or strata) of sedimentary or stratified rock.

Relative dating

establishes the chronological order of geological events or the age of objects in relation to one another.

Absolute dating

provides a specific numerical age (in years) for these events or objects.

Uniformitarianism

Relative age

Law of superposition

Unconformity

Law of Crosscutting relationships

Relative Dating

Varve

Radiometric Dating

Half-life

Absolute Dating

Eon

hundreds of millions to billions of years.

Era

Subdivisions of eons, typically lasting tens to hundreds of millions of years.

Period

Subdivisions of eras, often spanning tens of millions of years.

Epoch

several million years.

Ages

a few million years. They are sometimes used to further divide epochs.

Precambrian Era (4.6 billion - 541 million years ago)

Life began during this time with simple organisms like bacteria, and later, multicellular life started to appear, this vast era covers nearly 90% f earth's history, including the formation of the planet, the first oceans, and early atmosphere. Itis best known f the origin of and early life.

Mesozoic Era (252 - 66 million years ago)

Often called the Age of Reptiles, this era was dominate by dinosaurs, along with the emergence F birds and flowering plants. It ended with a massive asteroid impact that caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.

Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago - Present)

Referred to as he Age of Mammals

Divergent Plate Boundary

tectonic plates move away from each other. This movement creates new crust as magma rises from the mantle, often forming mid-ocean ridges or rift valleys.

Pangea

Formed abut 300 million years ago, as the continents collided to form it.

Earthquakes

Movements of the ground that are cause by a sudden release of energy when rocks under stress suddenly shift along a fault

Convergent Plate Boundary

Plates move toward each other and colide. This can cause one plate to be forced beneath another (subduction), leading to volcanoes, mountain ranges, or deep ocean trenches.

Transform Plate Boundary

Plates slide past each other horizntally. This movement builds up stress and releases it as earhquakes, but does not create or destroy crust.

Focus (plural foci)

The location within the earth along a fault at which the first motion of an earthquake occurs

seismic waves

As rocks along a fault slip into new positions , the rocks release energy in the form of vibrations

Epicenter

The point on earth's surface directly above the focus