OCR History: Russia and its Rulers

Stucture of Central Government - Alexander II

Removed the Personal Chancellery of his Imperial Majesty (functioned as secretaries, legal advisers and secret police for the Tsar) and replaced them with a Council of Ministers, selected and headed by the Tsar, who came up with legislation.
Established the Committee of Ministers, each minister was responsible for a specific aspect of administration. An issue was that ministers often didn't communicate, causing them to pursue conflicting policies.
His reforms in central government showed a step away from autocracy as he allowed more people to be involved in decision making.
However, the Tsar was still at the top of hierachy and the organs of government still answered to him. He could still ignore those below him and choose who to make into ministers. There was no democracy.
Planned to make Russia a constitutional monarchy but got assassinated.

Structure of Local Government - Alexander II

Created the Zemstva, regional councils. They had elected membership, suggesting a move towards democracy. The Zemstvo improved the quality of roads, education, public health and local economies.
Introduced a jury system, hierarchy of courts and better pay for judges. This made for a legal system that was more fair, especially for those who couldn't afford to bribe judges. Let the local police deal with things.
His changes led to improvements in the quality of life for urban peasantry and represented a step away from autocracy and towards democracy.
However, the mir still had significant influence over urban populations and the wealthy were more liekly yo be elected to the zemstvo and duma.

Stucture of Central Government - Alexander III

Removed the Council of Ministers, its duties were shared out to the other organs of government.
Generally, he moved back from his father's liberal changes and reinforced autocracy in central government. The Tsar continued to be at the top of the hierarchy and controlled those below them. There was no democracy.

Stucture of Local Government - Alexander III

Moved away from the liberal changes his father made to the legal system; police centralised under the Minister for the Interior and replaced Justices of the Peace with Land Captains.
Zemstvo continued.
His changes to local administration marked a change back towards autocracy as he took greater personal control back.

Stucture of Central Government - Nicholas II

Introduced the Duma, an elected assemby from different social groups. Brought back the Council of Ministers, making them the main law-making body in government. Changed the Imperial Council of State into the State Council, it was their role to check in on what the Duma was, the Tsar could decide who was in the State Council. The idea was that the Duma and State Council would discuss the policies of the Council of Ministers and the Tsar would consider their discussions before passing laws.
On the surface, the introduction of the Duma appeared to be a massive step towards democracy. In reality they were controlled by people chosen by the Tsar, the Tsar could ignore them and disband them (and he did). The Fundamental Laws on 1906 reinforced autocracy. Nicholas was still at the top of the hierarchy and could control everything he wanted. Democracy was an illusion.

Stucture of Local Government - Nicholas II

By the end of the 19th century members of the central government were growing annoyed at the Zemstva and Duma who had been demanding changes to the central government. This was referred to as the 'Third Element'.
Zemstvo continued, workers' councils called soviets emerged.

Stucture of Central Government - Lenin

Lenin allowed for elections to a constituent assembly in 1918, this was a step towards democracy. However, he ignored the results when the Bolsheviks lost. Sovnarkom established with Lenin as the chairman. Members of the Sovnarkon appeared to get positions through elections, creating the illusion of democracy. In the new givernment, all key posts were held by Bolsheviks.
Hierarchy remained, just with Lenin at the top now. Organs of government answered to Politiburo. Commissars answered to the executive committee as the ministers answered to the Tsar. The USSR functioned much like the Empire.
There was an illusion of change, but much of it was juct changing the names and who was in charge of prexisting apects of government.

Stucture of Local Government - Lenin

Communist ideas of justice rested on the idea of revolutionary justice. In 1921 the new criminal code legalised the use of terror to deter crime. Removed Zemstvo for being bourgeois. Local government was dominated by soviets.
Lenin's changes to local government secured all forms of government under Communism.

Stucture of Central Government - Stalin

1938 constitution established the positions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (main law making body), the Soviet of the Union (representatives from across the USSR), the Soviet of Nationalities (represented regional groups). Appeared to give more power to the people but was corrupt.
Hierarchical nature of government remained and there was no demoacracy. Article 128 of the constitution calls the communist party the 'nucleus of all the public and state organisations for the working people', reinforcing the idea that the party had all the control.

Stucture of Local Government - Stalin

Legal system continued to follow ideas established by the 1921 criminal code. No notable changes to local government, all aspects of government were centrally controlled by the Communist party.

Stucture of Central Government - Khrushchev

Destalinistaion led to some changes in how the government functiond. New Committees for Agriculture and Industry.
Hierarchical nature of government remained and there was no democracy.

Stucture of Local Government - Khrushchev

Legal system continued to follow ideas established by the 1921 criminal code. No notable changes to local government, all aspects of government were centrally controlled by the Communist party.

Secret Police - Alexander II

Replaced the Third Section with the Okhrana in 1880. Both were used to target political opponents, in the Okhrana's case; political pressure groups, those who critiqued Tsarist rule and individuals and small groups. They were not effective as they failed to prevent Alexander's assassination.
The Okhrana used methods such as covert surveillance, infiltration, interrogation, torture and murder to achieve its aims. People were sent to remote parts of the empire as a form of internal exile, or to Siberian work camps.

Secret Police - Alexander III

Used the Okhrana to its fullest extent. Spied on, arrested, imprisoned and exiled all opposition. It took a more relaxed role at the end of his reign, due to the lack of turbulence in this time.
The Okhrana used methods such as covert surveillance, infiltration, interrogation, torture and murder to achieve its aims. People were sent to remote parts of the empire as a form of internal exile, or to Siberian work camps.

Secret Police - Nicholas II

Used Okhrana less at the start of his reign. Became vital again with the emergence of revolutionary ideology. It was used to surveillance in the workforce, where it was feared that revolutionary ideology may spread.
The Okhrana used methods such as covert surveillance, infiltration, interrogation, torture and murder to achieve its aims. They would stoke anti-government behaviour and punish those who involved themselves with it. People were sent to remote parts of the empire as a form of internal exile, or to Siberian work camps.

Secret Police - Lenin

Replaced the Okhrana with the Cheka, dealt with anti-revolutionary behaviour and those qho questioned Communism. It didn't just target people for their actions, but also who they fundamentally were if they were deemed bourgeois. Dealt with nobility from the Tsarist era, including the execution of Nicholas II. Implemented the Red Terror (a campaign of political repression and executions starting during the Civil War), enforced grain requisition and dealt with the new Gulags. Continued to use similar methods of spying, infiltration and torture. Though the Gulags were new, they were similar to the Okhrana's Siberian work camps. Relaxed in an attempt to improve the image of the Bolsheviks.

Secret Police - Stalin

Introduced the NKVD. Began a more permanent form of terror. Vital in the purges of communist party members and show trials. Also vital to the running of the Gulags, which had 40 million prisoners. Helped with the collection of evidence against those who had been held to high esteem by Lenin.
The NKVD saw a return to repressive and violent methods used by the Cheka (and Okhrana). Torture, murder, exile, spying and infiltration.

Secret Police - Khrushchev

Used the MGB, MVD and KGB. MGB = kept general public in line. MVD = another NKVD, the two were combined in 1953 to form a larger MVD which dealt with ordinary criminal acts and civil disorder. KGB = internal and external security of the USSR during the Cold War, used spies to gather information. Ther was a shift away from methods like the Gulags and torture for dissidents. By 1960 there were only around 11,000 people considered in imprisonment in the Gulags. Less brutal and terrifying.

Army - Alexander II

Introduced conscription for all classes, allowing for better educated soldiers. Banned corporal punishment and branding. He also had corporal punishment and branding as punishment banned. His changes did not really improve the weaknesses. The army was made up of mostly peasants with nobles as officers. Was used to deal with civil unrest as well as war.

Army - Alexander III

Used the army to enact his Russification policy and keep the peace in the Empire as he did so. Continued to be made up of peasants with nobles as officers and continued to deal with civil unrest. Still had weaknesses.

Army - Nicholas II

Used the army on Bloody Sunday. Used the army to violently dismantle strikes, riots and protests. Losses in WW1. Tried to use it to deal with the unrest in 1917, but the army turned on him as massive parts of the army agreed with the revolutionaries so they joined the MRC and became vital in Nicholas losing power.

Army - Lenin

Used the army to take over from the Provisional Government. The MRC and Red Army took control of transport, public buildings, utilities and the winter palace - completely removing all power from the Provisional Government. They were vital in his taking power.
Used the army to consolidate his power and deal with the Civil War. At the start of the war, the Red Army hardly existed, by the end it had 5 million conscripts. The army was used to impose War Communism and Grain Reqisitioning.
Troops were again used to deal with strikes, this time by civil servants and financial workers.

Army - Stalin

Used the army to enforce The Great Purge, removing party members and officials he felt were threatS. The army itself was purged, 40% of officials were removed.
In WW2 they were ordered to fight to the death and killed for retreating, this led to the successful defence of Stalingrad and Moscow but also a lot of deaths. Soldiers were treated with suspicion after the war, menaing many were sent to the Gulags.
Stalin continued to use the Red Army. The army was used to enforce policies like collectivisation and grain requisitioning.

Army - Khrushchev

The changing nature of war and his focus on international affairs meant the army shrank in size from 3.6 million to 2.4 million. Continued to be used to maintain control in satellite states, as seen with the Hungarian Uprising.

Censorship - Alexander II

Glasnost. Allowed things like newspapers and foreign literature to be published without them being censored. Removed many of the restrictions on media like newspapers, magazines, books and pamphlets. These discussed reforms that the people felt were desperately needed. However, he still had the right to remove things from publication and returned to harsher censorship after assassination attempts.
Propaganda through religion.

Censhorship - Alexander III

Introduced very harsh censorship once again. Freedom of the press was limited and censorship affected classics of Russian literature. Publications that criticised or opposed the Tsarist rule were targeted and pre-publication censorship was introduced.
Propaganda through religion.

Censhorship - Nicholas II

Removed the pre-publication censorship that was introduced by Alexander III. He allowed for a period of glasnost. Papers for the proletariat emerged, and reports on the activities of the Duma began to be published. However, he still had the ability to remove things form publication and shut publishers down.
Began to use propaganda in the form of pamphlets and the tercentenary because he fell out of favour after Bloody Sunday.

Censhorship - Lenin

Introduce policies to remove the freedoms that had existed prior to the October Revolution. Aimed to suppress counter-revolutionaries. Passed the Decree on Press, which prohibited publications that criticised the Bolsheviks. By the 1920's they had full control of reporting.
Established the new Agitation and Propaganda Department which aimed to create an idealised picture of Russia. Covered education, radio and cinema. Communists established rules about what could and couldn't be in entertainment. They also spread propaganda in this way, aiming to portray the leaders as heroes. The cult of personality, Communist newspapers and Komosomol youth groups.

Censhorship - Stalin

Writers had to join the Union of Soviet Writers, write in a language that was understood by most people, and had to be approved by the party. Radio waves were distorted and news was made up during World War Two. The party contolled all media.
Propaganda relied on the cult of personality. He was presented as an everyman. Money was invested in sports teams to make Russia look impressive. Films were made to promote Stalinist policies.

Censhorship - Khrushchev

Eased censorship. By 1959 there were 135,000 libraries containing 800 billion books and 65,000 books were being published a year (2x mid-20s). Newspapers had a total readership of 60 million. Allowed for greater creativity in areas like film but things could still be distorted and things had to support a pro-Russia and pro-Communist message.
Destalinisation saw the end of propaganda through the cult of peronality.

Opposition - Alexander II

You could say he didn't deal with it very well because of all the groups that emerged during his rule and the fact he was assassinated. On the other hand, it took them a while.

Opposition - Alexander III

Dealt with opposition effectively because he understood how much of a threat it could posed. Crushed opposition before it became a real threat.

Opposition - Nicholas II

Again, you could say he didn't do that well with it considering they overthrew and killed him. His actions during the 1905 Revolution meant that revolutionary and anti-tsarist ideology grew.

Opposition - Lenin

Understood the importance of defeating opposition because the Bolsheviks had been opposition. Prevented it from the people through repression and also attempted to prevent partisanism in the Communists to prevent opposition from within.

Opposition - Stalin

Killed any and all opposition. Prevented internal opposition with the purges and external opposition with the threat of the gulags.

Opposition - Khrushchev

Didn't deal with it as well as other Communist rulers did. Failed to deal with opposition from within the party.

Nationalities - Alexander II

Poland: Polish nationalists wanted full independence. The Russian government rejected this leading to rebellion. Rebellion is small scale and not a real threat to Russia. The Milyutin Plan in 1864 dealt with it, Polish rebels were exiled and replaced by Russian nobles. Polish peasants get a better emancipation deal than the Russian peasants, freehold rights and fairer tax for redistributed lands. Rural district councils were set up to represent all classes.

Finland: Finland had a separate parliament, Diet, and was encouraged to join the Empire but resisted.

Baltic Provinces: Influenced by Old German rulers but nationalities was never enough of a problem to cause real problems for Russian rulers.

Ukraine: Heavily managed under the Tsars as it was a key farming region and vital to the empire so opposition was quelled.

Jewish People: Allowed them to move out of the pale of settlement.

Central Asia: Conditions allowed for cotton and textile industry. They mostly avoided russification under Alexander II.

Nationalities - Alexander III

Had a policy of russification, making the parts of the empire more Russian by enforcing it through language and other methods.

Poland: Polish was banned in teaching and Russian was made the official language.

Baltic Provinces: Influenced by Old German rulers but nationalities was never enough of a problem to cause real problems for Russian rulers.

Ukraine: Heavily managed under the Tsars as it was a key farming region and vital to the empire so opposition was quelled.

Caucasians: Russification carried out easily due to lack of literacy and universal identity because of religious splits.

Jewish People: Went back on his fathers actions and enacted many pogroms.

Central Asia: Still avoided russification more than other minorities. The Steppe Statute granted 40 acres to Russian settlers, not to the benefit of the natives.

Nationalities - Nicholas II

Finland: Finland was given full autonomy buy Stolypin didn't follow through.

Baltic Provinces: Influenced by Old German rulers but nationalities was never enough of a problem to cause real problems for Russian rulers.

Ukraine: Heavily managed under the Tsars as it was a key farming region and vital to the empire so opposition was quelled.

Caucasians: Repression not used too much because it led to opposition - seen with how he treated Dashnaks and Georgian Mensheviks. Fairly happy under this softer approach.

Jewish People: Repression and pogroms continue.

Central Asia: Stolypin pushed for further migration to industrialise. Nicholas allowed Islamic representation in the Duma until 1907. Tried to use these lands for resources for the war effort, many were deemed unfit for service but conscription led to rebellion, making the leaders back off.

Nationalities - Lenin

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk gave many national minorites brief independence. Lenin had to withdraw from WW1 due to his promises of peace, bread and land. The Decree on Peace saw the beginning of talks. The Germans agreed to a treaty with Ukraine, promising to give them freedom and protect them from Russia. Germany sent 700,000 troops to Russia to pressure them into agreement - Lenin wanted to agree, Bukharin wanted to keep fighting, Trotsky didn't want to respond. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on March 3rd, 1918. Russia paid 3 billion roubles. Lost Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Georgia and Finland. This was a third of agricultural land, a third of all railway tracks, a third of the population, two thirds of coal mines and heavy industry and most of the oil and textile industries. This led to the Bolsheviks being left in charge without the Mensheviks, caused opposition that was dealt witgh in the Civil War, led to the onset of repression and highlighted the problem of food production.

Poland: Polish are granted independence with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. However, he tried to take back Poland and was defeated - Poland even gained land in Ukraine and Belarus. They remained free until German occupation and were returned to Russia after WW2.

Finland: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk gave Finland full independence.

Baltic Provinces: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk gives them autonomy but it is annulled when Germany surrenders, meaning they stayed under Russia.

Ukraine: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk granted full independence but by the end of the Civil War, Ukraine was controlled again.

Caucasians: Georgia gained independence in 1920 but was retaken after the Civil War. Georgian revolutionaries were treated harshly by Stalin under Lenin.

Central Asia: The Communists guaranteed the Muslim population's rights, which other areas didn't get. However, these areas were used as a dumping ground for exiles, especially after WW2.

Nationalities - Stalin

Appeared to give the nationalities more autonomy with the Soviet of Nationalities but this was an illusion and the system was corrupt.

Poland: Nazi-Soviet Pact agreed for the Nazis to occupy Poland. The Polish government escaped to London. Russia set up the National Liberation Committee to replace the previous government with supporters of the Russian government. Stalin negotiated with Allied leaders to create border lines that include Poland and parts of Germany, Soviet-style governments were introduced. New constitution set up a council of state held almost complete legislative power.

Finland: Claimed that Finnish soldiers had entered Russia, used WW2 as a veil to invade Russia and take back Finnish land - this was unsuccessful. The Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance keeps Finland independent but neutral.

Baltic Provinces: Stalin's constitution incorporates the region easily. People were accused of being Nazi collaborators during the war and deported to Asian regions, opposition was not that serious but Stalin is dramatic.

Ukraine: Collectivisation and dekulakisation are heavily implemented and there are forced famines. The new constitution supposedly granted them theories but really cemented them as a satellite state. Accusations of German collaboration lead to exiles.

Caucasians: Stalin's constitution makes Georgia a full republic but this secures them under Russian rule.

Jewish People: Special settlements were established in the 30s. In WW2 there was growing suspicion towards Jewish people, bans were imposed on Jewish culture as they were viewed as subversive. The Doctors Plot, when Jewish doctors were killed, came from continued suspicion leading to purges.

Central Asia: The Communists guaranteed the Muslim population's rights, which other areas didn't get. However, these areas were used as a dumping ground for exiles, especially after WW2.

China: Besties with Mao.

Yugoslavia: Actually got to do free elections. Tito wins, a communist who does not want direct control from Russia. Tito installed his own form of communism, localised rather than centralised, creating conflict between Stalin and Tito.

Czechoslovakia: They actually get a free election in 1946 but a rigged one happens in 1948.

Hungary: Controlled elections and had 25,000 expelled for opposition.

East Germany: Shit is crazy - we are all being shot for trying to get to the west and the Berlin blockade and East Germany is getting ****ed for the war.

Nationalities - Khrushchev

Poland: Following the secret speech, Polish nationalists demanded for Stalinist politicians to stand down. Khrushchev largely agreed to this and there was far less oppression. Wladyslaw Gomulka was freed.

Jewish People: Didn't do any specific stuff, but people were arrest technical specialists for anti-communist activity.

Central Asia: Decree on the Rehabilitation of Deported Peoples, allowed people to return to home lands from exile. Used the land during the Virgin Lands Campaign, led to migration and upset locals.

China: Was not besties with Mao, who didn't care for destalinisation.

Korea: Was influencial in the agreement to peaceful coexistance between the Koreas.

Hungary: People think destalinisation will lead to reform but it is slow, this leads to a major rebellion which Khrushchev crushed with the army.

Agricultural Economy - Alexander II

The emancipation act theoretically freed them to work where they liked, but in reality redemption payments kept them where they were, working low quality land. This meant productivity was low.

Agricultural Economy - Alexander III

The creation of the Peasant Land Bank which helped peasants to buy land to farm, increasing productivity. The focus was on exporting grain, this was initially successful in increasing the money coming into the Russian economy but evertually too much was exported and a year with bad harvests meant people starved.

Agricultural Economy - Nicholas II

Stolypin's Wager on the Strong was similar to the later collectivisation. This policy also aimed to dissuade revolutionary behaviour, it was not what peasants were used to but was eventually successful as commercial farming grew. Agriculture under Nicholas II was producing at a surpus, as seen in the emergence of the kulaks. However, it failed to cope with the demands of war.

Agricultural Economy - Lenin

The beginnings of collectivisation and dekulakisation.

Agricultural Economy - Stalin

Five year plans for agriculture put pressure on peasants to perform. Collectivisation, agricultural education and the use of new technology was similar to Stolypin's methods and similarly proved successful in increasing productivity, eventually. Collective farms and sovkhozes were inefficient.

Agricultural Economy - Khrushchev

The Virgin Land Campaighn saw short term succes as 165 million acres were given over for the production of wheat. However, the land became over farmed and was not able to grow anytging anymore. This lead to food shortages and pressure on workers to be productive. Food had to be imported despite Russia having a massive share of farmable land.

Industrial Economy - Alexander II

Reutern reforms. New Work Discipline introduced new strict regulations to ensure that employers worked safely and efficiently. Railway construction (2194 miles in 1862 to 13979 miles by 1878), attracting foreign expertise and investment. Modernisation within the staple iron, coal, textiles and oil. J.J. Hughes transformed iron and steel production, was responsible for half of the steel production of Russia. The modernisation of heavy industry and the expansion of the railway meant industrial output doubled. However, reliance on foreign investment limited Russia's growth as other countries profited.

Industrial Economy - Alexander III

Vyshnegradskii introduced the Mendeleev Tariff, a 700 page book of taxes to be applied to imports, in 1891. This raised government revnue and encouraged production in Russia rather than buying exports.

Industrial Economy - Nicholas II

Witte's Reforms and the Great Spurt - industrial output increased by 7% from 1909 to 1914. Matched the output of most other nations but still wasn't catching up with the west. Coal production in 1913 was only 10% of Britain's.

Industrial Economy - Lenin

State capitalism at the start of his rule meant there was central control of the economy through the Supreme Economic Council. War communism introduced nationalisation and partial militarisation of the workforce. Under the NEP, small scale private ownership was allowed.

Industrial Economy - Stalin

Stalin introduced the use of 5-year-plans for productivity. Though they led to terrible working conditions and often had impossible aims, the 5-year-plans did lead to the rapid growth of heavy industry and after the plans were implemented, industry grew by 14% each year. Officially, the first five-year plan for the industry was fulfilled to the extent of 93.7% in just four years and three months. Catching up with the West - just behind Germany as one of the largest steel producers.

Industrial Economy - Khrushchev

Following Stalin's use of centralised planning, Khrushchev introduced a 7-year-plan to catch up with the US. The plan saw a slight shift away from heavy industry into chemicals, consumer goods, and natural resources.

Rural Living Conditions - Alexander II

Everyone is in izbas. Single room wooden hut heated by an oven/sleeping platform crossover. Conditions were cold, cramped and damp. Animals also lived in the izba and they were overcrowded. They were cheap to build, but poor quality. Emacipation meant peasants were free but they still had to pay redemption payments for 49 years.

Rural Working Conditions - Alexander II

Theoretically, emacipation meant peasants were free to work wherever they wanted. In reality, the mir still controlled their movements and work and the land they had to work on was low quality.

Rural Living Conditions - Alexander III

Everyone is still in izbas. Single room wooden hut heated by an oven/sleeping platform crossover. Conditions were cold, cramped and damp. Animals also lived in the izba and they were overcrowded. They were cheap to build, but poor quality. Famine.

Rural Working Conditions - Alexander III

Rural workers were needed to provide food for urban workers and in order to suppy trade, they often had a lot of pressure to be productive because of this. The peasants' land bank helped peasants to buy their own land to farm, meaning it gave them more freedom in how they worked than the emancipation did.

Rural Living Conditions - Nicholas II

Everyone is still in izbas. Single room wooden hut heated by an oven/sleeping platform crossover. Conditions were cold, cramped and damp. Animals also lived in the izba and they were overcrowded. They were cheap to build, but poor quality. However, things were getting better for the kulaks, and theirnliving conditions improved as they emerged as a class of wealthy peasants. Famine.

Rural Working Conditions - Nicholas II

The wager on the strong placed pressure on the peasants to be productive but also led to the emergence of the kulaks.

Rural Living Conditions - Lenin

Kulaks were targetted for being incompatibale with Communism. They were imprisoned for being agsint the revolution. Their children were banned from state schools and they had to pay higher taxes. Izbas continued to be izbas but peasants lived on more land. Famine.

Rural Working Conditions - Lenin

Collectivisation adn grain requisitioning were unpopular policies. The emphasis on the urban people over the rural continued.

Rural Living Conditions - Stalin

Stalin introduced housing blocks near the new collective farms. These could be overcrowded and kulaks were given the worst barracks or tents. Many kulaks were sent to gulags or work camps (6 to 18 million people). Famine.

Rural Working Conditions - Stalin

The priority was still to provide food for the urban workers. Peasants faced a lot of pressure to be very productive and faced fines and other punishments, including being sent to the gulags, if they failed to do so. The workers did not much like collectivisation, causing some to leave for the west.

Rural Living Conditions - Khrushchev

Dekulakisation was abandoned. Agro-towns , self contained town next to farms, were built. In some ways, this improved peasants lives by increasing and improving the facilities available to them. These agro-town had things to do for entertainment as well as housing. However, these were still built quicklt and cheaply, leading to low quality. Agro-towns lacked public health, leading to the spread of diseases.

Rural Working Conditions - Krushchev

The Virgin Lands scheme once again put rural workers under pressure to be productive for the sake of trade and urban workers.

Urban Living Conditions - Alexander II

Emancipation contributed to urbanisation. As people moved into cities and towns they grew, but only 19 of these had more than 100,000 people. Houses were made out of wood and heated by paraffin. This carried a risk of fires. Urbanisation also lead to public health crises, cholera and thyphus.

Urban Working Conditions - Alexander II

People living in towns and cities worked in either the service industry or manufacturing. Working conditions were dangerous and unhealthy, especially in factories and other heavy industry, and in textiles. There were no inspections and child labour was a problem.

Urban Living Conditions - Alexander III

Cities and towns continued to grow, but only 19 of these had more than 100,000 people. Houses were made out of wood and heated by paraffin. This carried a risk of fires. Urbanisation also lead to public health crises, cholera and thyphus.

Urban Working Conditions - Alexander III

Introduced factory inspections in 1882, though inspectors were limited in their ability and power to enforce rules and factory owners ignored rules. Laws against child labour banned the employment of children under 12, but this was unsuccessful and child labour continued as it was unlikely that it would be found out.

Urban Living Conditions - Nicholas II

1000 towns. Most homes were still wooden, so still prone to fires, and were lit by kerosene. 74 towns had electricity, 35 had gas, 200 had piped water and 38 had a sewer system.
An outbreak of cholera killed 100,000 people in St. Petersburg in 1910. Workers' barracks were used, these were overcrowded and cheap. In 1905, the average amount of space per household was 8.5m squared.

Urban Working Conditions - Nicholas II

In 1896, laws were introduced to cap the working day at 11 hours and 10 on a Saturday. In 1914, 9-10 hour working days were the norm and statutory holidays had been introduced. Low pay was partially offset by the introduction of a workers' insurance system in 1903, but it remained low.

Urban Living Conditions - Lenin

City housing was taken from private owners and given to the proleteriat. This was an improvement in quality and space for many.

Urban Working Conditions - Lenin

The Rabkrin was introduced in February 1920, it was supposed to be the workers and peasants inspectorate but it failed to do anything as it became a talking shop rather than a body to enforce industrial laws. Low pay was partially offset by bonus schemes, but it remained low.

Urban Living Conditions - Stalin

Under Stalin, space was allocated rather than rooms. Different families would have to share one room. High rise tenements were introduced. The average amount of space per household fell to 5.8m2 in 1935. 25% were in one room, another 25% were in communal dorms, 5% were placed in corridors or bathrooms. After WW2, many were homeless, this wasn't really dealt with until Khrushchev came to power.

Urban Working Conditions - Stalin

In 1932, the demands of the Five Years Plan made 10-12 hour working days the norm. By 1939 this went down to 7 hours and then back up to 8, with the removal of holidays, in 1940. Real wages fell by 50% from the beginning of the first Five Year Plan to the end. However, programmes, like the Stahkonovite movement, were introduced to reward people who did a lot of work, this gave many workers the chance to experince things they'd never have access to otherwise. There were heavy fines for breaking work rules.

Urban Living Conditions - Khrushchev

Communal living was abandoned. Housing doubled from 1955 to 1964. Co-operative housing was introduced, though this benefited the professional classes the most. People went to local housing meetings less, showing that they had less to complain about when it came to housing.

Urban Working Conditions - Khrushchev

By 1958, 7 hour working days were the norm. Under Krushchev, wages began to rise to the levels seen in the 20s.

Education - Alexander II

Primary education was placed under the control of the zemstva. The zemstva improved the quality and availability of education for the poor, as the number of schools and school places increased. In 1877, the Ministry of Education took control of primary schools, ensuring quality of education through inspections
A new code for secondary schools was introduced. This doubled the number of secondary education students.

Education - Alexander III

Went back on many of his fathers reforms, limiting access to education for the poor. He banned lower-class students from attending secondary school.
He also took away much of the autonomy of universities, controlling them to a greater extent.

Education - Nicholas II

First duma announced a plan for universal primary education leading to the expansion of primary education. There was an increase of 23,000 schools in 1880 to 81,000 in 1914.
Under Stolypin, all non-academic student meetings at universities were banned.

Education - Lenin

Most of Lenin's education policy just built on the work of the duma. By 1928, about 60% of children of primary school age were in school. Gymnasia secondary schools were replaced by polytechnic schools. While education improved at the beginning of the Communist period, it worsened with the introduction of the NEP.

Education - Stalin

Stalin made the most improvements to education of all the rulers. In 1930 he made primary school compulsory until the age of 12, meaning that there were 18 million children in primary school. He also made secondary school more accessible, by 1932 there were 6.9 million children in secondary education. School fees were scrapped in 1939.

Education - Khrushchev

Khrushchev continued with Stalin's education system, though destalinisation reduced the degree of propaganda and therefore improved the quality of education.

Wars and Revolutions - The Crimean War

Russia lost because it was falling behind the west, Alexander II recognised the need to reform Russian society in order to catch up with the west because of this war.
Political modernisation through the zemstvo and the end of serfdom. The legal and education systems were also refoemed as the lack of modernity was seen as the reason they lost.
Conscription for all was introduced, making for a more equal society. Service was reduced from 25 years to 15 and training was modernised. This led to a more professional army.

Wars and Revolutions - The Russo-Japanese War and The 1905 Revolution

Russia's failures led to more people questioning Nicholas' rule and wartime shoot fortages led to the spread of revolutionary ideology. This forced Nicholas to intoduce the Duma.
Russia lost Manchuria and Port Arthur, which led to a loss of trade and natural resources. Economically the focus continued to be on industry but this also led to the introduction of the Wager on the Strong - had impacts on the peasantry.

Wars and Revolutions - The First World War and The February Revolution

WW1 had severe impacts on Russia. Cities were cut short of fuel and food and there were severe conditions as people were overcrowded and starving. Strikes increased and prices had risen by 400% by 1917. The Duma was not in session from Dec 1916 to Feb 1917. As disconent grew, o did revolutionary ideology, and the war forced Nicholas to abdicate. While WW1 didn't directly give the Bolsheviks power, it provided them with a chance to get the Russian people on their side, as seen in Kornilov's attempted coup.
WW1 and the February Revolution allowed the massive changes made by the Communists to occur.

Wars and Revolutions - The October Revolution

The Bolshevik seizure of power had massive ideological impacts. However, many of the changes made to the government were surface level. Led to War Communism in the short term and centralised planning.

Wars and Revolutions - The Russian Civil War

Russia suffered between 8-10 million population loss through war, famine, terror and disease. Reinforced Communist rule but didn't change the way they ruled. The party came to be the state, with even higher levels of economic control (grain requisitioning and state control of industry), higher levels of repression and more direction of everyday life (more centralised and use of the Cheka). Led to the introduction of the NEP in the short term.

Wars and Revolutions - The Second World War

Military deaths around 10 million and civilian deaths 11 million. Over a million people lost their lives during the siege of Leningrad. As Russia had won, and was vital winning, it was now recognised as an international superpower. Led to a hardening of a system and a reaffirmation of the party's authority. Led to even more repression - punishement of soldiers who had been POWs.

Wars and Revolutions - The Cold War

Under Stalin, led to greater repression out of fear that information would get out.
Could be argued to have led to destalinisation under Khrushchev, as Russia wanted to have a more positove image on an international level.

Turning Points - Alexander II's Grand Reforms

Emancipation, zemstvo, judicial reforms, army reforms, education, growth of towns and cities, glasnost. However, many changes to structure of government were not as big as they seemed and emancipation had severe limitations.

Turning Points - The Reaction

Greater use of secret police, greater censorship, less available education, greater control over central government, russification and land captains. The peasant land bank wasn't that bad.

Turning Points - 1905 Revolution

Duma, less censorship, the great spurt. The duma was really limited because Nicholas could ignore and disband it, he could still take anything he didn't like out of publication.

Turning Points - February Revolution

Removal of 300 year dynasty, provisional government and democracy. However, this was short lived and really just opened Russia up for the Bolsheviks to take power.

Turning Points - October Revolution

Put the Communists in charge, so basically just everything that came with that - cheka, censorship, war communism, collectivisation. In a practical sense, a lot of how they governed, with no democracy, wasn't that new.

Turning Points - Rise of Stalin

Communists have total control, censorship and use of secret police, propaganda, great terror, collectivisation, just a lot of control and repression really.

Turning Points - Destalinisation

Relaxed use of secret police, way less in gulags, glasnost. Khrushchev and the communist party still have total control