PSYC 2012 Exam 1

What is a research producer?

A person who conducts research and produces empirical evidence.

What is a research consumer?

A person who evaluates and applies research findings.

Why is the consumer role important?

It helps people evaluate claims and apply evidence appropriately.

What mindset should research consumers have?

Do not accept information at face value; evaluate it systematically.

What is an empiricist?

Someone who bases conclusions on systematic, verifiable observations.

What distinguishes science from intuition?

Science uses systematic, verifiable evidence to evaluate claims.

What is the Theory-Data Cycle?

The process of using data to test, update, or change theories.

What are the three parts of the Theory-Data Cycle?

Theory, hypothesis, and data.

What is a theory?

An explanation that organizes observations and generates predictions.

What is a hypothesis?

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

What do scientists do with data?

Use data to test theories and evaluate their predictions.

Do studies prove theories?

No. Studies add evidence that changes the weight of evidence.

What makes a theory falsifiable?

It makes predictions that could potentially be shown wrong.

What was Cupboard Theory?

The idea that caregivers are valued primarily because they provide food.

What was Contact Comfort Theory?

The idea that caregiver attachment is based on comfort.

Why do scientists work in a community?

Other scientists evaluate, replicate, critique, and build on research.

What are Merton's scientific norms for?

They describe norms guiding how scientists should conduct science.

What does it mean for science to be public?

Scientists communicate their methods and findings so others can evaluate them.

What are applied problems?

Problems focused on solving practical, real-world issues.

What are basic problems?

Problems focused on understanding fundamental processes.

Why do scientists talk to the world?

To communicate research findings and their implications to broader audiences.

Why is personal experience limited as evidence?

It usually lacks a comparison group and may be confounded.

Why does experience lack a comparison group?

There is no alternative condition for determining what would have happened.

What does it mean for experience to be confounded?

Other factors may explain the observed outcome.

Why is research better than personal experience?

Research systematically compares evidence and controls alternative explanations.

Are research results deterministic or probabilistic?

Probabilistic: they indicate likelihood rather than certainty.

What are the five ways intuition can be biased?

Good story, availability, present/present bias, confirmation bias, bias blind spot.

What is the good-story bias?

A compelling story can make an explanation seem more convincing than evidence warrants.

What is the availability heuristic?

Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

What is present/present bias?

Focusing on information from cases where something is present.

What is confirmation bias?

Seeking or emphasizing evidence that supports what you already believe.

What is the bias blind spot?

Recognizing biases in others more readily than in yourself.

How does a scientific reasoner differ from an intuitive thinker?

Scientific reasoners systematically evaluate evidence rather than relying on intuition.

Why can authority be an imperfect source of information?

Authorities can be mistaken; their claims still require evidence.

What scientific sources should researchers consult?

Journal articles, books, and edited books.

What is PsycINFO?

A database for finding psychological research literature.

What is Google Scholar useful for?

Finding scholarly literature across academic fields.

What is lateral reading?

Checking information by consulting other sources rather than trusting one page.

What is click restraint?

Pausing before clicking to evaluate a source or claim.

What is an empirical journal article?

A report of research involving systematically collected data.

What should you do when reading research with a purpose?

Ask questions relevant to the claim and evidence being evaluated.

What is a variable?

A characteristic that has two or more levels or values.

What is a constant?

A characteristic that has only one level in a study.

What is a continuous variable?

A quantitative variable representing amounts along a continuum.

What is a categorical variable?

A variable whose values are categories or groups.

What is a measured variable?

A variable whose levels are observed and recorded.

What is a manipulated variable?

A variable controlled by the researcher through assigned levels.

What is a construct/conceptual variable?

An abstract concept, such as anxiety, intelligence, or self-esteem.

What is a conceptual definition?

The theoretical definition of a construct.

What is an operational definition?

A specific way a construct is measured or manipulated in a study.

What is an independent variable?

The variable manipulated in an experiment.

What is a dependent variable?

The variable measured as an outcome.

What is a frequency claim?

A claim describing the level or prevalence of a single variable.

What is an association claim?

A claim that two variables are related.

What is a positive association?

Higher values of one variable tend to accompany higher values of another.

What is a negative association?

Higher values of one variable tend to accompany lower values of another.

What is a zero association?

There is no systematic relationship between the variables.

What is a causal claim?

A claim that one variable is responsible for changing another.

What type of study can support a causal claim?

An experiment.

What are the three criteria for causation?

Covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity.

What is covariance?

The proposed cause and effect must be related.

What is temporal precedence?

The proposed cause must occur before the proposed effect.

What is internal validity?

The ability to rule out alternative explanations for a causal relationship.

Why can correlation alone not establish causation?

It does not establish temporal precedence or rule out alternative explanations.

What is construct validity?

How well a variable was measured or manipulated as intended.

What is external validity?

How well results generalize to other people or contexts.

What is statistical validity?

How accurately and precisely the numbers support a claim.

What is internal validity?

How well a study rules out alternative explanations for a causal claim.

Which validity is usually prioritized for causal claims?

Internal validity.

Which validities are relevant to frequency claims?

Construct, external, and statistical validity.

Which validities are relevant to association claims?

Construct, external, and statistical validity.

Why can't all four validities always be maximized?

Study design involves priorities and tradeoffs among different types of quality.

What is operationalizing happiness?

Choosing a specific measured or manipulated variable to represent happiness.

What are three common types of measures?

Self-report, observational, and physiological measures.

What is a self-report measure?

A measure in which participants report their own thoughts or behavior.

What is an observational measure?

A measure based on directly observing behavior.

What is a physiological measure?

A measure based on a bodily or physiological response.

What are categorical scales of measurement?

Scales whose values represent distinct categories.

What are quantitative variables?

Variables whose values represent amounts or quantities.

What does reliability ask?

Whether measurement scores are consistent.

What does validity ask?

Whether a measure actually measures what it is supposed to measure.

Is reliability sufficient for validity?

No. Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity.

How can reliability be visualized?

With a scatterplot showing consistency between measurements.

What does correlation coefficient r indicate?

The direction and strength of an association between two variables.

What does Cronbach's alpha assess?

Internal consistency reliability.

What is test-retest reliability?

Consistency of scores across different times.

What is interrater reliability?

Consistency among different raters or observers.

What is internal consistency reliability?

Consistency in the pattern of responses across items.

What is face validity?

Whether a measure appears on its face to measure the intended construct.

What is content validity?

Whether a measure adequately represents the construct's relevant content.

What is criterion validity?

Whether a measure relates to relevant behavioral criteria.

How can criterion validity be assessed?

With correlational evidence or known-groups evidence.

What is known-groups evidence?

Testing whether a measure distinguishes groups expected to differ.

What is convergent validity?

A measure relates to other measures of the same or similar constructs.

What is discriminant validity?

A measure is not strongly related to measures of different constructs.

What is the relationship between reliability and validity?

A measure must be reliable for strong validity evidence, but reliability alone is insufficient.

How should construct validity evidence be interpreted?

As a matter of degree based on the weight of evidence.

What does a strong test-retest correlation suggest?

The measure produces consistent scores over time.

What does a strong interrater correlation suggest?

Different raters produce consistent ratings.

What does high internal consistency suggest?

Items on a measure produce a consistent pattern of responses.