5.3 principles of learning

learning

relatively permanent change in performance brought about by experience, excluding changes due to maturation and degeneration

performance

a temporary occurrence fluctuating over time, change in performance over time is often used to infer learning

cognitive/verbal stage of learning

• early phase where an individual tries to make sense of instructions

• demonstration is important

• lots of verbal labels to aid memory

• errors common

associative/motor stage of learning

• intermediate/practice stage

• practice required to improve

• errors reduced

• developing more consistent, coordinate movement

• feedback important

autonomous/final phase of learning

• performance is consistent with minimal cognitive activity

• attention given to other aspects of game

• rate of skill improvement slows

linear learning curve

as practice increases, so does performance in a proportional relationship

• practice is successful and beneficial

• high motivation with positive coaching

• simple skill

positive acceleration learning curve

indicates slight performance gains initially then rapid improvements in performance

• increasing task complexity

• information overload in early stages

• gradual development of interest

negatively accelerated curve

indicates rapid initial improvements then lesser gains from practice

• physical fatigue

• loss of interest/motivation

• limited ability of coach

plateau learning curve

indicates little learning is taking place

• lack of practice

• declining interest/motivation

• injury

physical maturation on rate of learning

physical maturation of nervous, skeletal and muscular systems are required from younger learners as they make a large number of errors but as they mature more motor plans are generated

physical fitness on rate of learning

physical size, shape and fitness level may assist in learning, can make greater decisions more effectively if they are not fatigued

individual differences of coach on rate of learning

• teaching style may appeal to one learner but not another

• quality and type of feedback is important

• age appropriate techniques and knowledge of game

age on rate of learning

impacts physical maturation, experience, emotional maturity which will affect progress of a learner

difficulty of task on rate of learning

will be slowed if the task is too difficult for the learner, may impact motivation

teaching environment on rate of learning

• most desirable is a safe environment with limited distractions/small group

• appropriate facilities and space

motivation on rate of learning

intrinsic or extrinsic, motivation isn linked to arousal state

transfer

the effect that practice on one task has on the learning or performance of another task

positive transfer

practice of task facilitates learning of another

negative transfer

practice of one task inhibits learning of another

zero transfer

no effect, not relation

skill to skill transfer

between two skills, little long term positive transfer

• basketball to netball, tennis to badminton, throwing a ball to throwing a javelin

practice to performance

positive transfer likely only to occur if environmental conditions are similar

• batting in cricket against a bowling machine

ability to skills

contribute significantly to performance of skill they underpin

• balance to balance on beam in gymnastics

bilateral/limb to limn

positive transfer of learning and training occurs between limbs

• striking football with right foot, left foot

principles to skill/practice

more evidence to suggest positive transfer

• principles of defensive play in invasion games e.g. soccer and field hockey

distributed practice

amount of intervals between practice - rest between trials

massed practice

amount of intervals between practice - little to no rest between trials

fixed drill practice

order of practice - skill repeated in the same way - often called blocked

variable practice

order of practice - skill repeated in random/variety of ways - often called random

mental practice

mental or cognitive rehearsal without actual physical movement - imagery or visualisation

whole practice

practicing the movement in its entirety, used more when parts of the skill are performed simultaneously

part practice

• skill is broken down into its ‘parts‘

• when parts of skill are consecutive it can be broken up

• often used for complex skills

whole-part-whole practice

• coach introduces complete skill, highlighting important elements

• performer’s errors are observed and whole skill is broken into subroutines to allow the performer to practice specific areas

• once problem area is mastered part is integrated back into whole skill

progressive part practice

parts of a skill are gradually linked into larger blocks that come progressively closer to the real, whole action

command teaching style (A)

authoritarian style

• learners treated the same way

• questioning and thinking are discouraged

• coach in full control of decision making process

• beneficial for beginners

reciprocal teaching style (C)

peer coaching

• coach sets agenda and encourages learner to work with peers to provide feedback

• gives confidence and encourages communication and cognitive skills

• mistakes as improvement

• problem when not all participants work together effectively

problem-solving teaching style (H)

coach present a task and lets learners find a solution

• more independence, self-esteem, motivation

• experience is required

• leads to greater problem solving in games/under pressure