AP Psychology Unit 2

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Selective attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, also known as the cocktail party effect.

Inattentional blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Change blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment, exemplified by the bearded man not realizing the person giving directions was replaced.

Gestalt

An organized whole; Gestalt psychologists emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of information into a meaningful whole.

Visual Capture

When competing with other senses, vision usually wins; we naturally focus more attention on visual input.

Figure-ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).

Similarity

The tendency to group similar figures together.

Depth perception

The ability to see objects in three dimensions, allowing us to judge distance.

Visual cliff

A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.

Retinal disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes.

Relative height

We perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away.

Phi Phenomenon

An illusion of movement created when adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.

Autokinetic effect

Illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room.

Flashbulb memory

A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Semantic memory

Fact-based memory, similar to information remembered from playing Jeopardy.

Procedural memory

Memory related to how to perform tasks, like tying shoes.

Episodic memory

Memories of certain episodes or events, such as vacations or holidays.

Prospective memory

The memory of tasks we need to remember to do in the future.

Explicit memory

Memories of facts and experiences that one can consciously declare.

Implicit memory

Procedural memory that doesn’t require conscious recall.

Encoding

The processing of information into the memory system.

Storage

Retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information and well-learned information.

Semantic encoding

Encoding of meaning, including the meanings of words.

Self-referent processing

Encoding based on how information relates to oneself.

Rehearsal

The conscious repetition of information.

Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed practice to yield better long-term retention.

Serial position effect

Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

Mnemonics

Memory aids, especially techniques using vivid imagery.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic that involves placing items to remember in familiar locations.

Hierarchies

A structure that breaks down concepts from broad to specific.

Chunking

Organizing items into manageable units.

Acronym

A type of chunking using the first letters of to-be-remembered items.

Working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory focused on active processing of information.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

An increase in synaptic firing potential that is believed to be the basis for learning and memory.

Recall

A measure of memory where information learned earlier must be retrieved.

Recognition

A measure of memory that requires identifying previously learned items.

Priming

The unconscious activation of particular associations in memory.

Retrieval cues

Anchor points used to access specific information in memory.

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences consistent with one’s current mood.

State-dependent memory

The phenomenon where what is learned in one state is more easily recalled in that same state.

Retrograde amnesia

The inability to remember events that occurred prior to brain surgery or accident.

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new memories after a brain injury.

Source amnesia

Confusing the source of information or attributing it to the wrong source.

Proactive interference

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

Retroactive interference

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

Misattribution

Confusing the source of information.

Cognition

All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Hierarchies

Organizational structures that break things down from broad categories to specific items.

Prototypes

Mental images that are the best examples of a category.

Schemas

Organized mental frameworks about a particular topic or group.

Algorithm

A logical procedure that eventually solves a specific problem.

Heuristic

A general rule of thumb or shortcut used to reduce possible solutions.

Functional fixedness

The tendency to think of an object in its usual way, limiting innovative uses.

Availability heuristic

Judging the likelihood of an event based on readily available experiences.

Representative heuristic

Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches an example.

Framing

Posing a question in a way that influences thoughts or perceptions.

Belief perseverance

Holding onto a belief even after it has been discredited.

Overconfidence bias

The tendency to be more confident than correct.

Exaggerated fear

Being overly fearful, often leading to phobias.

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience and adapt to new situations.

Fluid intelligence

Intelligence involving reasoning, memory, and information processing speed; often declines with age.

Crystallized intelligence

Intelligence based on life experiences; generally increases with age.

Analytical intelligence

The ability to analyze and evaluate information.

Creative intelligence

The ability to generate new ideas and think divergently.

Practical intelligence

The ability to handle everyday life skills.

Multiple intelligences

Independent intelligences that encompass a variety of skills.

Emotional intelligence

The ability to perceive and regulate emotions.

Mental age

A measure of cognitive ability not necessarily tied to chronological age.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A formula that determines intelligence scores based on mental and chronological age.

WAIS test

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, a widely used test for measuring intelligence.

Aptitude tests

Tests predicting future performance.

Achievement tests

Tests measuring what has been learned.

Standardization

The process of establishing norms for a test based on population distributions.

Reliability

The consistency of a test's results.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.

Nature vs. Nurture views of intelligence

The debate on whether intelligence is determined by genetics or environmental factors.

Stereotype threat

A concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

Peg word

Using association words to remember numbers. Ex. one-bun, two-shoe, three-tree.

Perception

The process of organization and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.