PSY 308 Midterm 1 study guide

 

Behavioral Genetics

The scientific study of the interplay between genetic and environmental factors in shaping behavior.

Nature/Nurture Debate

The ongoing discussion regarding the relative contributions of genetic predispositions (nature) and environmental influences (nurture) to an individual's behavior.

Genetic Expression

The manifestation or activation of genes, influenced by both genetic predispositions and environmental factors.

Genotype-Environment Correlations

 Processes by which genetic factors contribute to variations in the environment.

Genotype-Environment Interactions

Involves genetic susceptibility to the environment, where the impact of the environment on behavior is influenced by an individual's genotype.

Epigenetics

Modifications in DNA that affect gene expression and are passed on during cell division. Environmental factors can influence gene expression by turning genes on or off and some modification may be passed down to children.

Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins who originate from a single fertilized egg. Epigenetic changes may contribute to differences in gene expression as they age, influenced by various environmental factors.

Teratogens

Environmental agents or substances that can cause malformations or functional abnormalities in a developing embryo or fetus.

Adoption Studies

Research method involving the observation of adopted children and their adoptive and biological parents to study the influence of genetics and environment on behavior.

Germinal Period

The initial 14-day phase of prenatal development, beginning at conception and concluding with the implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterine lining.

Zygote

The cell formed by the union of a sperm and an egg, containing combined genetic information from both parents.

Mitosis

The process of cell division that occurs during the germinal period, leading to the formation of a blastocyst.

Blastocyst

A stage in early prenatal development, occurring after five days of mitosis, comprising an inner embryonic disk (future embryo) and an outer trophoblast (support system).

Embryonic Period

The stage of prenatal development that begins with blastocyst implantation, involving the formation of major structures and differentiation of cells.

Placenta

A structure connected to the uterus during the embryonic period, providing nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord.

Fetal Period

The stage of prenatal development from the ninth week until birth when the organism is referred to as a fetus, involving continued development of major structures.

Age of Viability

The stage in the fetal period (around 24 weeks) when the fetus has a chance of survival outside the womb.

Neurogenesis

The formation of neurons, largely completed after five months of gestation during prenatal brain development.

Neural Migration

The movement of neurons to their designated positions in the brain during prenatal brain development.

Cephalocaudal Development

Growth and development occurring from head to tail during prenatal development.

Proximodistal Development

Growth and development occurring from the midline outward during prenatal development.

Gray Matter

Regions of the brain containing cell bodies, appearing gray, involved in neural processing.

White Matter

 Axons that form neural pathways and are covered in myelin, appearing white, aiding in insulation and efficiency of neural transmission.

Neurotransmission

Communication between neurons through the release and reception of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.

Biological constraints on development

viability, timing, and differentiation as key principles shaping development of organism (from video lecture)

Teratogens

Environmental factors that can contribute to birth defects, including parental diseases, pollutants, drugs, and alcohol.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)

A range of effects resulting from alcohol consumption during pregnancy, with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) being the most severe form.

Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome

Withdrawal symptoms experienced by a baby born to a parent who used addictive drugs during pregnancy.

Pollutants

 Harmful substances, including lead, pesticides, Bisphenol A, radiation, mercury, and toxoplasmosis, with potential teratogenic effects.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

Infections such as gonorrhea, syphilis, and chlamydia that can be transmitted to the fetus, causing various complications.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

A potentially devastating teratogen causing illness and death, with transmission risks during pregnancy, labor, or breastfeeding.

Rubella

Also known as German measles, an infection associated with birth defects if contracted by the gestational parent during the first three months of pregnancy.

Critical Period

Specific times during prenatal development when structures in the body are most vulnerable to severe damage if exposed to teratogens.

Chromosomal Aberrations

Changes or abnormalities in the structure or number of chromosomes, associated with increased risks in offspring, especially when fathers are older.

Maternal Blood Screening

Special prenatal screening tests, such as blood tests, performed during pregnancy to identify potential health risks for the baby.

Stress-related Hormones

Chemicals released in response to stress that, when elevated during pregnancy, may cause complications, including premature birth and low birth weight.

Prenatal Care

Medical care and attention provided to pregnant individuals to monitor and promote the health of both the parent and the developing fetus.

Apgar Assessment

A quick assessment conducted near birth, evaluating the newborn's overall condition based on five parameters - heart rate, respiration, muscle tone, reflex response, and color.

Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)

assesses newborn's motor development, muscle tone, and stress response to further evaluate infants, especially those with low Apgar scores.

Psychosocial Development

·       The process of psychological and social maturation that occurs throughout a person's life, as influenced by cultural, social, and psychological factors.

Developmental Tasks

Specific challenges or milestones that individuals face at different stages of their lives, according to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.

Trust vs. Mistrust

The developmental task of infancy according to Erikson, where the infant learns to trust their caregiver and the world or may develop mistrust if their needs are not consistently met.

Attachment

A strong, emotional connection and bond that forms between an infant and their primary caregiver, influencing the child's future social and emotional development.

Secure Attachment

A healthy and positive emotional bond where the infant feels secure and confident in the caregiver's responsiveness to their needs.

Insecure Attachment Styles: Avoidant Attachment

A style where the child may avoid or ignore the caregiver, showing little emotion when they depart or return.

Insecure Attachment Styles: Resistant (or Ambivalent) Attachment

A style marked by wariness, clinging to the caregiver, and ambivalence when separated and reunited.

Insecure Attachment Styles: Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment

The most insecure style, characterized by mixed, confused, and inappropriate responses from the caregiver.

Strange Situation Technique

A laboratory test developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess infant attachment by observing the child's behaviors during separations and reunions with the caregiver in a controlled environment.

Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD)

A mental health disorder occurring in children who have experienced social neglect or deprivation, leading to disturbed and developmentally inappropriate attachment behavior.

Non-Organic Failure to Thrive

A diagnosis for an infant who does not grow, develop, or gain weight on schedule, with no known medical explanation, often associated with factors like poverty, neglect, inconsistent parenting, or severe family dysfunction.

Erikson’s perspective on autonomy vs. shame/doubt in toddlers (later infancy)

A stage in Erikson's psychosocial development theory where toddlers strive for independence (autonomy) while facing the risk of developing shame and doubt if not encouraged in their exploration.

Circle of Security (lecture)

based on Bowlby’s ethological perspective.  A model to explain how children use parents as a secure base for exploration and safety when taking risks.

Temperament

Innate neurophysiologically-based characteristics of infants, including mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity, noticeable soon after birth

• Easy

• Difficult

• Slow-to-warm-up

Goodness of fit

The compatibility between a child's temperament and the demands/expectations of the environment. child's long-term adjustment depends more on how caregivers respond to their temperament than the temperament itself. A good fit supports positive development.

Personality

consistent pattern of feeling, thinking, and behaving, resulting from the continuous interplay between biological disposition (temperament) and experience.

Social Referencing

process where infants seek out information from others' facial expressions to understand and respond to a situation.

Self-Awareness

Developmental milestone that one is separate from others, enabling understanding of social emotions like guilt, shame, embarrassment, empathy. Assessed with self-recognition in mirror

Major motor milestones in developmentMajor motor milestones in development

·       Crawling not required

·       Gross (large muscle groups) vs Fine motor skills (palmer/pincer)

·       Visual acuity

·       Hearing

·       Preferential looking and habituation methods

·       Infant reflexes

·       Basic idea of Piaget’s stages (movement from reflexes to coordinated intentional movement)

·       Basic idea of memory studies testing what infants remember as they build thought

·       Progression of early infant language development (cooing, babbling, jargoning and gesturing)

·       Early infant language production (first words, holophrases, two-word sentences, telegraphic speech)

·       Chomsky’s nativist language acquisition device

·       Critical period for language learning

·       Social nature of language

Cultural Influence on Parenting Styles

authoritative style, emphasizing independence and self-reliance, is favored in individualistic cultures like the United States, while authoritarian parenting is more common in collectivistic cultures where obedience is valued. Social class differences also matter.

Sibling relationships

Sibling interactions can teach empathy, sharing, and cooperation, but the quality of these relationships is influenced by the parent-child relationship and the psychological adjustment of the children.

Conflict Resolution and Growth in Sibling Relationships

can serve as opportunities for growth in social and cognitive skills.

Higher-order contexts of parenting

factors operating at a level above individual parents, such as marital relationships, extended families, neighborhoods, communities, and broader societal structures.

Impact of Status Hierarchies

o   Status hierarchies based on class and race create inequities in living conditions, affecting children and families.

o   Impact on objective living conditions that are developmentally hazardous

o   Educational disparities

o   impact of discrimination/prejudice on stress

Resilience

not all children facing adverse experiences show severe negative consequences, and many lead happy and well-adjusted lives.

Short term impacts of divorce

anger, increased behavioral problems, poorer school performance, and difficulties with peers. Should be considered in context of unhealthy family dynamics before and after the divorce.

Long term impacts of divorce

small effects of achievement in school, self-esteem, and social competence, slight increase in risky behavior in adolescence.

Factors for adjustment

Limiting conflict, providing warmth, emotional support, and discipline well-functioning custodial parent, access to social support, higher socioeconomic status

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood, such as abuse, neglect, or household dysfunction.

Cumulative risk

The combined impact of multiple adverse experiences or stressors over time

Types of maltreatment

neglect, physical, psychological, sexual