cooler

empirical approach

an evidence-based method that draws on observation and experimentation

critical thinking

thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

psychoanalytic psychology

study of the unconscious, includes childhood and aggression issues. has the concept of the the id, ego, and superego. they moderate each other

humanistic psychologists

emphasize a positive, optimistic view of human nature; goodness and potential for growth

cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

counseling psychologists

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychologists

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatrists

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

community psychologists

work to create social and physical environments that are healthy for all

dualism

The belief that reality is composed of two distinct substances: the mind, which is immaterial and responsible for thought, and the body, which is material and governed by physical laws. These two interact but remain fundamentally different.

materialism

The belief that everything in the world, including the mind, can be explained in terms of physical matter and processes. Hobbes rejected dualism, claiming that mental phenomena arise entirely from physical interactions in the brain.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus, leading to a learned response. This occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) that elicits an automatic response (e.g., salivation), eventually causing the neutral stimulus to evoke the response on its own.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Positive or negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases it. This learning process focuses on the association between voluntary actions and their outcomes.

SQ3R

A reading comprehension method named for its five steps: survey, question, read, recite, and review

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

perceiving order in random events

people tend to see patterns in events that are not related and random

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypotheses

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definitions

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

replicate

repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research's reliability

preregistration

publicly communicating planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

descriptive methods

A research method that provides a systematic and objective description of what is occurring.

correlational methods

A research method that examines how variables are naturally related in the real world. The researcher makes no attempt to alter the variables or assign causation between them.

experimental methods

A research method that tests causal hypotheses by manipulating independent variables and measuring the effects on dependent variables.

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlate

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

randomly assign

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

confounding variables

in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results

dependent variables

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debrief

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Quasi-experiment

A research design that resembles an experimental setup but lacks random assignment of participants to groups. Instead, participants are assigned based on pre-existing conditions or characteristics.

biological psychologists

the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes

neuroplasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

neurons

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center

dendrite

a neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

synpase

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflexes

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. good for timing

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity

PET (positron emission tomography)

a technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imagine)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue, showing brain anatomy. good for location

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function. good for location

diffusion tensor imaging MRI

a technique which maps the brain's interconnected network of neurons by observing water being transported through neural fibers

hindbrain

consists of the medulla, pons, and the cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance