CHS 160 Quiz #1 Prep.

CH. 1-7

public health

assuring the conditions in which people can be health

health communication

the study and use of communication strategies to inform and influence decisions and actions to improve health (CDC); lies at the intersection of public health and communication and is a vibrant, multidisciplinary, and constantly evolving field of study and practice that applies principles of communication to support individuals, families, communities, organizations, and policy makers to adopt changes that will improve public health outcomes

health education

focuses on a broad variety of learning experiences from classrooms to beyond to share knowledge that people can use to improve behaviors that affect health and well-being

health promotion

process of developing programs for individual and group health that may or may not include health education and health communication activities

social determinants of health

study of economic and social conditions within which individuals act

health disparities

specific differences experienced among groups

ex. unacceptable statistic that Black women are two to three times more likely to die in childbirth than White women

social ecological model

way of understanding an individual as part of their social environment; places individual in the center of the model and you study how each factor shapes/influences their behavior

misinformation

incorrect messages

disinformation

misinformation with the intent to cause harm

antiracism

deliberate and active efforts to identify, oppose, and dismantle racism

social justice

idea that everyone deserves equal rights and opportunities and is at the core of public health practice

diversity and inclusion

deliberate and active efforts, usually by an organization, to recruit and retain people representing diverse demographics and to value and incorporate their contributions

Define Health Communication.

A science and art of using communication to advance the health and well-being of people and population while being at the intersection of public health and communication. It is interchangeable with public health communication.

Explain where and how a student can study health communication in the United States

In the US health communication can be studied as a class, program, concentration, or degree. There are also a variety of health community organizations and in-person meetings/conferences that one can attend.

Recognize how the field of health communication has changed over time

Health communication typically falls under social & behavioral sciences and has become specialized in many different areas of focus.

Describe the difference between theories, models, and frameworks including the social ecological model, a widely applied model that will be used throughout this book.

Theories are evidence-based explanations of causal process that explain how a problem occurs + how it can be changed. Models are visual diagrams that link theory to particular health problems. Frameworks show how theories & models are applied to problems in order to achieve the expected program results or behavior changes. Ex. Frameworks are the road maps where the problem is the present location and theories + models are the road and stops along the way making changed behavior the destination.

List several contemporary issues in health communication.

• Misinformation + disinformation

• Mistrust of the systems and structures making some communication forms less effective

• Health communication can’t do much more than raising awareness and generating knowledge to communities

• Need to maintain strong collaborations at many levels to maximize the population we can help

health communication intervention

deliberate method to influence or promote health and is often used when describing research efforts, such as testing an intervention with a group that receives it against a control group that does not get the intervention

health communication project

planned effort that uses a communication approach to achieve tangible outcomes related to health

health communication program

can include multiple projects and/or interventions over multiple phases, places, and/or time periods

health communication campaign

strategic, top-down, media-based efforts, characterized by a one-way flow of information from a source to a receiver (Community based and two way health)

situation and audience analysis

the process of understanding why a health situation exists, including the structural and root causes, and to ascertain audience needs, priorities, barriers, and facilitators to change

formative evaluation

a process that is conducted prior to designing a health communication program in order to form and inform the program’s activities

stakeholder

anyone who has a stake in and is interested in a health communication program and/or its results

health communication planning model

overarching guide that provides insights for theory, implementation, and evaluation to use for a health program, project, or campaign

objectives

concise statement of the desired or planned results anticipated as a consequence of health communication efforts

pretesting

process of bringing together members of the intended audience to “test” communication materials with them, get their reactions, and ensure materials are suitable and relevant before they are produced and then implemented in final form

cultural competency

transcends race and ethnicity and speaks to “culture” as a whole, including values, beliefs, norms, and customs. It is relevant from the micro level (i.e., patient–provider communication) to the macro level, which includes ideological and sociopolitical influences such as government documents or policies

participatory research approaches

enable the voices of community members to be heard throughout the change process

Compare and contrast different health communication planning models.

• Ideation: helps to understand how new ideas or health behaviors are formed via communication; process of how we imagine & plan certain actions

  • focus = targeting formation of ideas

  • considers cognitive, emotional, and social factors to determine how health communication can address intention & behavior

• PRECEDE-PROCEED: used to emphasize what behavior precedes each health benefit & what benefit precedes each health behavior

  • helps develop mechanism for planning, implementing, and evaluating health promotion programs

  • Planning (phases 1-4) - PRECEDE: Predisposing, Reinforcing, Enabling Constructs in Educational/Environmental Diagnosis and Evaluation

  • Evaluation (phases 5-8) - PROCEED: Policy, Regulatory, Organizational Constructs in Education and Environmental Development

  • Predisposing, Reinforcing, Enabling Factors 

• ACADA: steps/procedures that must be followed to plan, implement, and evaluate health communication efforts

  • Assessment, Communication, Analysis, Design, Action

  • Goal: achieve sustained behavior change through advocacy, social mobilization & program communication

• P Process: practical planning model for developing systematic & strategic health communication programs

  • 5 steps: Inquire, Design Strategy, Create & Test, Mobilize & Monitor, Evaluate & Evolve

• Social Marketing: Idea that principles of marketing can help to “sell” public health issues

  • emphasizes ideas, attitudes, thoughts, feelings with purpose of promoting social goods & well-being

  • 4 “P”’s: Product, Price, Place, Promotion

• Communication for Social Change: mirrors changes in health communication from traditional focus on individual change → focusing more on promoting social change

  • Catalyst, Community Dialogue, Collective Action, Individual and Social Change

  • links individual behaviors w/ social change

Illustrate the importance of using a planning model to design, implement, and evaluate health communication programs.

It’s important to use planning models to design, implement, and evaluate health communication programs because they allow us to conduct a situation and audience analysis while considering stakeholders, high cultural competency, and ethical issues. They give us different ways to look at a health issue that a population is having and how to solve it. They are easily tailored or combined in order to address the health issue.

Define cultural competency and its importance to health communication

• Transcends race & ethnicity and speaks to culture as a whole (values, beliefs, norms)

  • relevant at the micro and macro level

• It’s important to health communication because when dealing with different populations we need to take their culture into consideration to make sure that our campaigns are relevant to their beliefs. It also helps workers to more respectfully communicate with those they work with.

Recall important ethical considerations for health communication.

• Public Health Code of Ethics 6 values/obligations for practitioners: professionalism and trust, health and safety, health justice and equity, interdependence and solidarity, human rights and civil liberties, and inclusivity and engagement

• “One health”: emphasizes the interdependence of human, animal, and environmental health, and requires the collaboration of diverse researchers and communities of practice

• Hippocratic oath (first, do no harm) is the foundation for ethical practice

Describe the five steps for conducting a situation and audience analysis.

1. Determine Specific Behavior and Social Change

2. Collect Data

3. Analyze Data

4. Identify the communication solution

5. Validate Needs

continuum of change theories

• identify variables or needed conditions that influence action and combine them into a predictive equation

• A + B = individual and social change

stages of change theories

• focus on the process that individuals or communities go through when deciding, adopting, and maintaining certain behaviors

• work in chronological or sequential levels or steps

self-efficacy

person’s belief that they can act and was later added to the HBM

cue to action

• the catalyst or what initiates an individual’s process of behavior change

• where health communication can play a role

• external or internal

value expectancy theory

based on the premise that people weigh the pros and cons, or the cost and benefits of a specific action, because people ultimately want to perform behaviors that have maximum benefits and avoid behaviors that have higher levels of cost

vaccine hesitancy

delay in accepting or otherwise outright refusing vaccines despite access to and availability of vaccination services

direct effects model

model where an intervention has a direct link to an outcome, social support has a direct impact on health outcomes

indirect effects model

intervention influences an intermediary, which in turn has links to an outcome

prevention paradox

where a behavior may bring a benefit to the population at large but it is hard to see benefits at the individual level

environmental justice

movement during the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s to ensure all people receive fair treatment related to environmental laws and policies

community health

specific area of public health focused on the health of the people in a community

Recall key public health theories across the social ecological model (SEM).

• Policy level: public advocacy

• Organizational level: organizational change

• Community level: community organizing and community building, community readiness, social norms

• Interpersonal level: social support, social networks, social cognitive theory

• Individual level: health belief model, theory of planned behavior, transtheoretical model

Name constructs from specific public health theories.

• Health Belief Model (HBM): Perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, cues to action, self-efficacy

• Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB): Attitude toward the behavior, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, behavioral intention

• Social Cognitive Theory (SCT): Self-efficacy, observational learning, outcome expectations, reinforcement, reciprocal determinism

• Trans-theoretical Model (TTM): Stages of change (pre-contemplation → maintenance), processes of change, decisional balance, self-efficacy

Compare and contrast similarities and differences between public health theories.

• INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL THEORIES

  • Health Belief Model (HBM): based on how fear of poor health motivates a person to prevent it (value expectancy theory)

    • Key Components: individual perceptions (perceived susceptibility and severity), modifying factors (demographic & sociopsychological variables), and the likelihood of action (Perceived benefits - Perceived barriers)

  • Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB): Attitudes, subjective norm, perceived control to create intention → behavior

    • From TRA → TPB → IBM

  • Transtheoretical Model/Stages of Change: behavior change occurs as a result of individuals passing through a series of sequential stages that result in their permanent adoption of a protective behavior

    • Non-linear model

    • Key elements: stages of change (precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance), the processes of change (experiential processes of change include: (a) consciousness raising, (b) dramatic relief, (c) environmental reevaluation, (d) social liberation, and (e) self-reevaluation; behavioral processes of change include: (a) stimulus control, (b) helping relationships, (c) counter conditioning, (d) reinforcement management, and (e) self-liberation), decisional balance, and self-efficacy

• Interpersonal-Level Theories

  • Social Support: positive effects of relationships that result in feelings of comfort and encouragement

  • Social Networks: study of how the social structure of relationships function and subsequently impact a person’s beliefs and behaviors

    • ego or hub; intensity or strength; reciprocity; formality; similarity; homophily; heterophily; graphic dispersion; complexity; directionality; strength of weak ties

  • Social Cognitive Theory: explains how learning is a process that occurs within a social context

    • Human behaviors are a function of both individuals and their environment

    • 5 learning processes: aware, symbolic representation, reproduction or transformation, motivational incentives, performance

    • Key constructs: collective efficacy, outcome expectations, goal formation, observational learning, and reciprocal determinism

• Community Level Theories

  • Community Organizing and Community Building

    • Community organizing involves making change from within the community for a common goal

      • Key principles: participation, empowerment, and critical consciousness

    • Community Building emphasizes building a community around an issue, location, or need where there is currently not an established community

      • Key principles: Social capital, social cohesion, and resilience

  • Community Readiness: degree to which a community is willing and prepared to take social action to address an issue

    • 9 stages: (a) no awareness, (b) denial, (c) vague awareness, (d) preplanning, (e) preparation, (f) initiation, (g) stabilization, (h) confirmation/expansion, and (i) professionalization

  • Social Norms Theory: group of theories that explain how social norms influence behavior

    • descriptive norms, injunctive or subjective norms

• Organizational Level Theories

  • Organizational Change: describe how organizations seek to improve health

    • 4 stages: (a) awareness, (b) adoption, (c) implementing change, and (d) institutionalizing change

  • Policy Level Theories

    • Health activism: (a) medical care access and improvement, (b) illness and disability activism, and (c) public health promotion and disease prevention activism

    • Public advocacy: 3 phases - involvement, strategy, and action

Illustrate how public health theories are connected to planning, implementation, and research.

Public health theories allow researchers to go through a step-by-step to help them plan, implement, and conduct research. Researchers don’t have to limit themselves to one theory. They are able to mix, match, combine, and reorganize theories to fit the population and health concern that they are working with. These theories give them different options to do the steps listed above.

Discuss how public health theories can be applied to a specific health topic.

Depending on what your health topic is you need to decide whether it would fit under an individual level theory, interpersonal level theory, community level theory, organizational theories or policy level theories. Once you decide which level of theory it fits under you should look at the theories that encompass that level and decide if one or more fit your health topic. From there you can either stick to one or combine multiple theories to combat your health topic.

sender-message-channel-receiver model

sender who gives or transmits a message, through a channel (i.e., the radio or telephone), that is then received at the other end

noise

anything that interferes with the successful transmission and decoding of the message that was encoded

encoding

creation of a communication message at the source

decoding

process of understanding a message at the receiver’s end

two-step flow

mass media stimulate interpersonal communication among friends and colleagues which, in turn, affects people’s knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors

convergence

model that illustrates communication as a process of exchanges that result in shared meaning

diffusion of innovations

• behaviors are contagious and spread through contact with new ideas

• The process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among members of the social system

media effects

focus on audience outcomes associated with media exposure

media consequences

outcomes caused by the media itself

symbolic annihilation

absence, or underrepresentation, of a specific group of people in the media

Recall key communication theories across (and beyond) the social ecological model.

• Individual Level Theories

  • Magic Bullet or Hypodermic Needle as metaphors for theory

  • Sender-message-channel-receiver

  • Two-step flow

• Interpersonal Communication Theories

  • Interaction process

  • Communication & Social Relationship theories

  • Group level theories

  • Policy Theories

• Mass media theories

  • uses & gratification

  • cultivation

  • persuasion

  • agenda-setting & framing

• Cross-level theories

  • diffusion of innovations

  • narrative theories

Name constructs from specific communication theories.

• Individual Level Theories

  • Magic Bullet or Hypodermic Needle as metaphors for theory: Passive audience, direct media influence

  • Sender-message-channel-receiver: Sender, Message, Channel, Receiver, Feedback, Noise

  • Two-step flow: Media → Opinion Leaders → Audiences

• Interpersonal Communication Theories

  • Interaction process: Source, Message, Feedback, Context, Noise, Two-way exchange

  • Communication & Social Relationship theories: Self-disclosure, Trust, Empathy, Social support, Uncertainty reduction

  • Group level theories: Norms, Roles, Cohesion, Decision-making, Leadership, Groupthink, Consensus-building

  • Policy Theories: Agenda-setting, Framing, Advocacy, Stakeholder engagement, Public opinion influence

• Mass media theories

  • uses & gratification: Information, Personal identity, Social interaction, Entertainment

  • cultivation: Mean world syndrome, Perceived reality, Long-term exposure

  • persuasion: Central & Peripheral routes, Source credibility, Attitude change

  • agenda-setting & framing: Issue salience, Media agenda, Framing, Priming

• Cross-level theories

  • diffusion of innovations: Innovation, Channels, Time, Social system, Adopter categories, Relative advantage, Compatibility, Complexity, Trialability, Observability

  • narrative theories: Narrative fidelity, Coherence, Identification, Transportation, Emotional engagement

Compare and contrast similarities and differences between communication theories.

• Individual theories → focus on how people think and respond.

• Interpersonal theories → focus on relationships and feedback.

• Group theories → focus on collective communication and decision-making.

• Mass media theories → focus on societal influence and message framing.

• Cross-level theories → bridge micro (individual) and macro (societal) levels of communication.

Illustrate how communication theories are connected to planning, implementation, and research.

Communication theories help us understand a person’s thought process. By using these theories we can see the effects of different communication styles on populations which can help us better plan our path of action to working on the health issue.

Discuss how communication theories can be applied to a specific health topic.

Depending on what group of people you’re talking to you can decide which communication theory would reach them best based on your health topic. 

theory of change

roadmap for health communication practitioners, is a tool to keep a program on track that documents its journey by telling programmers where they are in the planning process and how to achieve anticipated results

logic model

description of a program and its intended effects and focuses on “what” needs to happen, that is, resources, activities, outputs, and outcomes

goals

general statement that describes the intent or long-term purpose of a program

inputs

intervention planning term for resources, refer to what is needed to make a health communication program work

outputs

results or products of health communication activities and can be counted

short-term results

• immediate changes that can be measured right away during or after a program.

• Knowledge, attitudes, skills, opinions, aspirations, motivation, intention

medium-term results

• focus on actions that take place within approximately 2 to 5 years.

• behavior, decision-making, policies, social action, norms shifting

long-term results

• occur after a health communication program has been completed and, in most cases, require multi-sectoral interventions.

• social well-being, health, economic impact, civic impact, environmental impact

objectives

small, precise steps that are needed to achieve program goals

indicators

designed and used to measure what changes, when it changes, and how much change takes place

primary audience

main group of people you hope to directly reach in your health communication program

branding

any imagery, music, or qualities that a company uses to distinguish itself from its competitors

health literacy

degree to which individuals have the ability to find, understand, and use information and services to inform health-related decisions and actions for themselves and others

Design a unique theory of change (or logic model) to meet their health communication program goals.

Distinguish between short-term, medium-term, and long-term results.

Write measurable objectives and indicators.

Critique health communication materials based on quality criteria.

Understand the principles and process of pretesting to finalize messages and materials.

behavior

open theory approach

multiple health behavior change

intervention mapping

participation

motivational interviewing

persuasion

nudging

tailoring

modeling

framing

punishment (fear)

Identify common outcomes of individual-level health communication programs.

Explain why behavior change is often an outcome of individual-level health communication programs.

Break down what is meant by an open theory approach to behavior change

Provide an example of a public health communication intervention designed to address health behavior change on more than one topic simultaneously.