ENVI 101 FINAL EXAM (BINGHAMTON UNIVERSITY)

How has the availability of sugars, fats, and salts to the human diet changed over time, from 200,000 years ago (when humans were hunter gatherers) to now? How has this contributed to health problems in the U.S.A.?

Now we breed meat for flavor so it has higher fat, vs wild animals that have lower fat

We have on oil industry now

More sugar, more processed food, high fructose corn syrup

These have caused "western diseases" such as heart disease and diabetes

Why do so many processed foods contain high levels of sugars and fats?

For flavor, so the product sells. Also these foods are cheap to produce

What are food deserts?

When an area does not have access to healthy food (like fruits and veg)

Why did modern agriculture create a divide between people and the environment?

Environmental issues get pushed to the side so we can focus on maximizing food production and profits

Created a system that doesn't resemble an ecosystem anymore

Not relying on natural processes to generate these systems

What was the most significant development, technologically, of modern agriculture?

·

Haber-bosch process (artificial nitrogen fixation), making ammonia

How far does food travel, on average, to reach your plate?

1000+ miles

For people born after 1960, life expectancy for those in the top 20% in terms of income live 13-14 years longer than those in the bottom 20%. Why do wealthy Americans tend to live longer than poor Americans?

Unhealthy foods like fat and sugar are cheaper, so these are the foods the poor can afford to eat. Wealthy people can afford to buy healthy, unprocessed food

What is the ideal diet for humans? I.e., should our diets be mostly whole foods (fruits, vegetables, whole grains), animal protein, processed foods, etc.?

Mostly whole foods

Why is dietary fiber (e.g., indigestible cellulose) important for a human diet? Do Americans tend to eat too much or too little fiber?

Fiber helps the digestive system and prevents colon cancer

Americans usually eat too little fiber

How are honey bees different from most other bee species (~25,000 spp of bees worldwide)?

They live in organized colonies

Honey bees are Non-native and mostly female

Honey bees have stingers

Social vs solitary

Produce honey and beeswax

What is the difference between pollination and fertilization?

Pollination is the transfer of pollen, fertilization occurs once the pollen grain reaches the stigma

Why are pollinators considered keystone species?

·

Insect pollination is required for 75% of human food crops, so they greatly affect our environment

Is pollination always a mutualism? Why or why not?

No, not always, it is an exchange of sex for food, an example of this is the Ophrys, which tricks the male bee into thinking the plant is a female bee, causes deceptive pollination, and the male bee gets nothing out of it

biotic pollination = mutualism

Why are pollinators economically important, i.e. how much of our food is dependent on biotic pollination?

75%

What threats are pollinators, both honey bees and wild pollinators, facing today?

Introduces mites, pesticides (neonicotinoids), climate change, human land use, environmental contaminants, and phenological mismatching (when the plant populations and pollinator populations do not work at the same time, so the plants open when the bees aren't pollinating or the bees try to pollinate when the plants aren't open)

· How would your life be different without pollinating animals?

We would have less food and foods that require pollination would be much more expensive bc they would have to be pollinated by humans

It would affect food chains

Other things made of plants like our clothes and coffee would be affected and be more expensive

· How can we manage our yards to better promote pollinator biodiversity?

Don't use chemicals, plant native plants for bees to pollinate, provide nesting areas in your yard

· What can we do to promote pollinator diversity and abundance?

Limit the use of harmful pesticides

Better management of floral resources

Avoid monoculture

Focus on native bees by planting native flowers and providing bees with nesting areas

Altruism-

doing something that doesn't help you but helps someone else, behaving in such a way that your benefitting some other individual detrimental to your fitness (not pollination) (a bee is just trying to reproduce, not feed the entire community)

Hedgerows-

a hedge of wild shrubs and trees, typically bordering a road or field???????

phenological mismatching-

when the plant populations and pollinator populations do not work at the same time, so the plants open when the bees aren't pollinating or the bees try to pollinate when the plants aren't open ( (example: spring is happening earlier and the bees are underground and developing and hatch as adults in spring but because spring is happening at different times, they are hatching as adults at different times)

Neonicotinoids-

long lived chemicals which inhibit voluntary muscle movement in bees

systemic pesticides-

pesticides that infiltrate inside the plant (they don't just sit on the outside), and this can harm animals that eat the plant or insects when they try and pollinate the plant

convergent evolution-

when we have traits that are similar to another species, not because the two species are related, but because of similar selective pressures they have endured

pollination syndromes- similar suites of flower traits can be found in evolutionarily unrelated taxa as a result of convergent selection by the same pollinating agent

floral thermogenesis-

Thermogenic plants have the ability to raise their temperature above that of the surrounding air. Heat is generated in the mitochondria, as a secondary process of cellular respiration called thermogenesis (Wikipedia definition)

Oviposition-

flowers provide a suitable microclimate for mating, resting, protection, warmth, etc, insects can lay their eggs here (ex: figs)

buzz pollination-

some bees (bumblebees) can vibrate the pollen out of a plant, if we had to do this ourselves, it would be much less efficient

What is the Land Ethic, and why is it relevant today?

·

Land ethic is how we think we should interact and treat the environment. Relates human centered worldviews vs environmental centered worldviews. Do we fit into as a piece? Or is it for our benefit? Thinking about our place as land managers.

Pay close attention to the section in the text (Ch. 25) that discusses Leopold's Land Ethic.

The role of human species should be to protect nature, not conquer it

Leopold became one of the foremost leaders of the conservation and environmental movements during the 20th century

Humans are only one part of all life on earth and we are not the master of other animals and plants. In the final section of A Sand County Almanac, titled "Land Ethic," Leopold makes clear the difference between ecologically responsible acts and ecologically irresponsible acts.

know this

What does it mean to 'think like a mountain'? When did Leopold first recognize the importance of thinking like a mountain?

Leopold's earlier career was different from his later career

Thinking like a mountain is considering the interconnectedness of all things not just one species

So when we think like a mountain we think of how our interactions impact other systems

What is Michael Pollan's general recommendation for better eating?

Eat food, not too much, mostly plants

Remember the following advice given by Michael Pollan in the last third of the book:

o Don't eat anything your great-grandmother wouldn't recognize as food.

o Don't eat anything incapable of rotting.

o Avoid food products that are a) unfamiliar, b) unpronounceable, c) more than 5 ingredients, d) include high fructose corn syrup.

o Avoid food products that make health claims.

o Shop the peripheries of the supermarket and stay out of the middle.

o Get out of the supermarket whenever possible.

o Eat mostly plants, especially leaves.

o You are what what you eat eats too.

o Eat well-grown food from healthy soils.

o Eat wild foods when you can.

o Regard nontraditional foods with skepticism.

o Don't look for the magic bullet in the traditional diet.

o Eat meals.

o Pay more, eat less.

o Do all your eating at a table.

o Don't get your fuel from the same place your car does.

o Try not to eat alone, and eat slowly.

o Cook and, if you can, plant a garden

What was the Pleistocene overkill?

When ancestors of native Americans entered North America about 14,000 calendar years ago, they encountered a large number of species that had no experience with humans. As a result, they did not recognize humans as a threat. The ancestral Indians (or Paleo-Indians, as they are sometimes called) were able to take advantage of this fact and were able to hunt the large mammals with great ease. The Paleo-Indians became specialist big game hunters concentrating on game like mammoths, giant bison, ground sloths, and other species of large size. They hunted dozens of species to the point of extinction, and indirectly caused the extinction of many smaller species as a consequence of ecological disruption.

What are the pros of rewilding?

Pros:

May help increase the survival of large animals right now!!

Increases biodiversity

Reestablishes and brings back species native to the environment

Tourism increases money

We can control diseases—but doing this is unrealistic and will cost even more money

What are the cons of rewilding?

Cons:

Cost

Might harm current species

Focus on current species

Could bring back diseases

Might not be accepted by humans

Where does our cultural desire for lawns come from?

Unifies the "American landscape," connects neighbors, status symbol in Europe???

· A relevant quote: "Some people hoist a flag to show they love their country. Well, my lawn is my flag. It tells the world, 'Here lives a competent and trustworthy salesman of propane and propane accessories.' A man who can't keep up a lawn is either inept or stupid."

Hank Hill

King of the Hill

1997

What are the three major macronutrients that people need, what defines them, and what is their biological importance?

Carbs, proteins, and fats/lipids

- our main source of energy

Proteins- made up of amino acids, stores energy, fights disease, hormones

Lipids- hydrophobic molecules involved in energy storage, structure, and cell signaling

What three food production systems produce most of our food, and how much land do they each use?

Croplands- provide 77% of world's food on 11% of world's land area

Rangelands- pastures and feedlots, provide 16% of food on 29% of land

Fisheries- provide 7% of food

·How prevalent is overnutrition and undernutrition worldwide, and what are the root causes of each?

People who cannot grow or buy enough food to meet basic needs suffer from undernutrition and live in less-developed countries

1 billion undernourished people-1/7 people

Overnutrition occurs when food intake exceeds energy use and causes excess body fat

1.6 billion face overnutrition

What is the goal of industrialized agriculture, and how does this goal affect the environment?

To increase yield, the amount of food produced per unit land. Large amounts of fossil fuels, financial costs, fertilizers, pesticides all harm environment.

What are some problems associated with using corn/sugar/palm oil/etc. for biofuel production?

Increase prices of products-corn

Clear-cutting almost a million acres of tropical forest per year to produce biofuel from these sugar cane and soy, 50% more carbon emitted using biofuels than petroleum, WE ARE USING MORE FOSSIL FUELS THAN WE ARE GETTING WITH THIS PROCESS!!!

Why is polyculture preferable to monoculture in most instances?

Increases levels of insects and biodiversity

Helps prevent pest populations from wiping out entire fields of crops/food security

Better use of available nutrients

Evenly distributed crops

Why is industrialized agriculture harmful to the environment?

·

Degrades land quickly (erosion, pollution, etc.)

High fossil fuel consumption, mainly due to synthetic fertilizers/haber-bosch process

Why is there no such thing as 'cheap food'?

"There is no such thing as cheap food. The real cost of food is paid somewhere. And if it isn't paid at the cash register, it's charged to the environment or to the public purse in the form of subsidies. And it's charged to your health."

How does industrial agriculture contribute to climate change?

Clearing and burning of forests for croplands

¼ of all human-generated emissions of CO2

Livestock contributes 18% of world's greenhouse gases

Pesticides pollute the air

Huge amount of nonrenewable energy to power machinery and emits greenhouse gases

Is topsoil considered a renewable or nonrenewable resource (according to Dr. Meindl)?

Nonrenewable, it cannot "replenish" within a measurable human timescale, takes a very long time to form

What are the environmental and ethical concerns associated with feedlots?

Uses a huge amount of resources and produces a huge amount of waste, including greenhouse gases

Unethical - animals have no room to move, poor air ventilation, low visibility (light), living in their own waste (feces, etc.), not treated humanely

How much of our meat comes from pastures/rangelands vs. feedlots?

½ for pastures and ½ for feedlots

Describe the pros of GMOs.

Pros: allows for produce to be grown in different climates → increases yield, more variety, less fertilizer needed

Describe the cons of GMOs.

Cons: sometimes makes food less nutritious, issues arising around who "owns" GMOs (ex: Monsanto/patents), toxins in food, reduces biodiversity, unpredictable genetic effects

How does pesticide use in suburban areas compare to that of cropland?

The average lawn has 10x the amount of pesticides as cropland!!!!

How can aquaculture in general harm the environment?

⅓ of wild fish caught in the oceans is used for fishmeal to be fed to farmed fish

Generates wastes that pollute aquatic ecosystems

Introduces invasive species

Results in habitat destruction

Ex: Lake Victoria (introduced fish reduced diversity by ½)

Why is producing carnivorous species, such as shrimp, salmon, and tuna, in aquaculture considered unsustainable?

Inefficient process

Generates wastes

Introduce invasive species

The amount of energy it takes to produce carnivorous species > the amount of energy received in return (as a product)???

Why hasn't pesticide use reduced crop losses from pests, despite increased application?

·

...Pests are evolving and becoming resistant.

What are some current efforts being done to slow desertification in Africa and China?

The great green wall of china (largest man made forest)---effort by the chinese government to slow desertification by revegetating areas in the gobi desert to prevent the loss of topsoil. The topsoil has been lost due to grazing. They are planting forests. Other area---Sub-saharan Africa! Increasing vegetation

Crop rotation

Prevent overgrazing by rotating animals

Revegetating landscapes that have been deforested

Why should we buy more local food?

Support local businesses

Less food miles → less carbon dioxide (GHG) emissions emitted

Reduces fossil fuel costs

Describe the pros of agricultural subsidies.

Pros: lessens the need to source food from outside the country, gives farmers access to consistent income, helps manage food supply and keeps domestic food competitive in global market

Describe the cons of agricultural subsidies.

Cons: damages the environment, involves government intervention/fiscal burden on taxpayers, hurts farmers growing produce not covered by subsidies/farmers in poorer countries that do not receive government assistance

How can we improve aqua-cultural practices to limit environmental harm?

Open-ocean aquaculture because wastes are diluted. Recirculating aquaculture because it connects fish and plants in one system. Protect mangrove forests. Improve management of wastes.

Overnutrition-

excess body fat from too many calories and not enough exercise

Undernutrition-

hunger, not enough food to meet basic energy needs

Micronutrient-

a substance (vitamins and minerals) that is essential in small amounts for the proper health of an organism

Macronutrient-

a substance essential in large amounts for an organism to grow and be healthy, the macronutrients are proteins, fats, and carbs

food insecurity-

people living with chronic hunger and poor nutrition

food security-

all or most people in a country have access to enough nutritious food to be healthy

How much food is wasted worldwide? What can be done to fix this?

⅓ or 40%

How many calories of energy input are needed in our system of industrial agriculture to produce one calorie of food?

10 calories in, 1 calorie out.

Why is meat production considered highly inefficient?

The amount of resources that go into raising, slaughtering and packaging (water, land, food)

38% of the world's grain and 37% of the world's fish are used to produce animal protein, which is completely unsustainable.

Malnutrition-

not enough protein or other key nutrients

(CAFOs)-

facilities that raise large quantities of animals that kept and raised in confined spaces for their entire lives (extremely overcrowded and unsanitary), food is brought to the animals (no grazing, etc.)

Agribusiness-

farming is more money related than ever, the average farmer now feeds 129 people compared to 19 in the 1940s, this business has massive annual sales

concentrated animal feeding operations

green revolution-

occurred in the 1960s, monocultures of high yield crops such as rice, wheat, and corn, using large amounts of fertilizers, pesticides, and water, using artificial selection to grow crops faster

genetic engineering (GMOs)- an organism that has had its DNA altered

organic agriculture-

crops grown with ecologically sound and sustainable methods without using synthetic pesticides or GMOs; avoids the use of antibiotics/growth hormones for meat

Emphasizes prevention of soil erosion, employs crop rotation, reduces fossil fuel use, produces less air/water pollution, regionally/locally oriented

Polyculture-

using multiple crops in the same space in imitation of the diversity of natural ecosystems, avoiding large stands of single crops

Famine-

a severe shortage in food which results in mass starvation, deaths, economic chaos

plantation agriculture- monocultures of cash crops produced on large tropical plantations for export to more developed countries

Fishery-

concentration of a particular species suitable for commercial harvesting

30% overfished

57% harvested at full capacity

Aquaculture- blue revolution; world's fastest growing type of food production, dominated by operations that raise herbivorous species (carp, catfish, tilapia, etc.)

Pesticide-

chemicals used to kill/control populations of pests

First generation: borrowed from plants

Second generation: lab-produced )DDT, etc.)

Broad spectrum/narrow spectrum agents

Biopesticide- produced by plants to ward off insects and herbivores (ex: nicotine, rotenone)

Pests-

any species that interferes with human welfare by competing with is for food, destroying property, spreading disease, damaging ecosystems and/or being a nuisance

integrated pest management (IPM)- combined use of biological, chemical and cultivation methods in proper sequence and timing to keep the size of a pest population below the level that causes economically unacceptable loss of a crop/livestock animal

Salinization-

gradual accumulation of salts in the soil from irrigation water → lowers crop yields and can kill plants

Affects 10% of world cropland; projected to affect 30% by 2020

Agrobiodiversity- the genetic variety of animal and plant species used on farms to produce food

75% of genetic diversity (animal/plant species) lost since 1900

Desertification-

productive potential of topsoil falls by 10% or more due to prolonged drought and human activities (leads to erosion); human agriculture accelerates desertification

Subsidy-

price supports, tax breaks and other financial support from the government to keep a business running and to encourage them to increase production

Over the last ~100 years, we have added over 5 billion people to the global human population- what are the three main factors that led to this exponential rise?

1. Modern agriculture

2. New technologies

3. Death rates have dropped sharply

What factors help to explain differences in birth and fertility rates across different regions of the world (nine listed in lecture)?

Children as a part of the labor force

Cost of raising and educating children

Availability of private and public pension

Urbanization

Infant mortality

Educational and employment opportunities for women

Average age of a woman at marriage

Availability of legal abortions/birth control

religion/culture

Why do some consider the United States to be the most overpopulated country in the world, despite being only the third most populated country?

High rates of per capita resource use

Thomas Malthus believed that human population growth (exponential growth) would soon outpace food production (linear growth)- why hasn't this happened yet?

The use of coal and other fossil fuels drastically increased the amount of food we are able to produce. Other technologies have increased food production and overall health.

Why are people moving from rural areas to urban areas?

Push factors: lack of healthcare and education services, growth of commercial agriculture, war, poverty, natural disasters, land degradation, religious conflict, etc.

Pull factors: better healthcare/education, employment opportunities, more accessible food/water, quality of life, etc.

How do more-developed vs. less-developed countries compare in terms of population growth rates?

Growth rate in more developed countries: 0.1%

Growth rate in less developed countries: 1.4%

Why does the United States rate poorly in comparison to other developed nations in terms of both life expectancy and infant mortality rates?

Poor health care system, lower income and don't have access to quality health care and eat a lot of crap

crude birth rate-

number of live births occurring among the pop. of a given geographical area during a given year

cultural carrying capacity-

the maximum number of people who could live in reasonable freedom and comfort indefinitely without decreasing the ability of the Earth to sustain future generations

Malthusian trap-

point at which a population outgrows the amount of available food produced (more food is required than available)

positive checks-

factors that raise death rate

preventative checks- factors that lower birth rate

Megacities-

city with a population of over 10 million people

pull factors-

things that attract people to cities (better healthcare/education, employment opportunities, more accessible food/water, quality of life)

push factors-

things that encourage people to leave rural areas (lack of healthcare and education services, growth of commercial agriculture, war, poverty, natural disasters, land degradation, religious conflict, etc.)

How can we slow human population growth?

Reducing poverty (through economic development and education), elevating the status of women, and encouraging family planning

Stage 4: death rates and birth rates have dropped, people are living in urban environments, this can mean on average there are fewer young people and more older people, people are getting older and having fewer children

What are some social issues that result from aging populations?

Higher wages, fewer children, shrinking workforce, strain on healthcare and pension systems (government strains), less likelihood for new technologies, retirement age increased

family planning-

providing information, clinical services and contraceptives to help people chose the number and spacing of children they want to have

crude death rate-

number of deaths occurring among pop. of a given geographical area during a given year

demographic trap-

stage 2 of the demographic transition (transitional stage): high fertility and declining mortality causes population growth surge in developing countries

Move nations to stage 3 (industrial stage): develop economically, elevate the status of women