AP Biology Ultimate Guide (Weaknesses)

What is a compound in chemistry?

A substance that consists of two or more elements chemically bonded together.

What type of bond is formed when electrons are shared between atoms?

Covalent bond.

What is an ionic bond?

A bond formed between two atoms when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another.

What are the charged forms of atoms called?

Ions.

What distinguishes non-polar covalent bonds from polar covalent bonds?

Non-polar covalent bonds share electrons equally, while polar covalent bonds share electrons unequally.

What are hydrogen bonds?

Weak chemical bonds that form when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one atom is attracted to another atom.

What properties of water are attributed to hydrogen bonding?

Cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, high heat capacity, and expansion on freezing.

Define cohesion in the context of water.

The strong tendency of water molecules to stick together.

What are the three classes of organic compounds central to life?

Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids.

What is the chemical formula for glucose?

C6H12O6.

What is the primary function of polysaccharides?

To store energy or provide structural support.

Distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

single sugar units, two sugar units linked together, and long chains of monosaccharides.

What is the function of proteins in living organisms?

They are important for structure, function, and regulation of tissues and organs.

What are amino acids?

The building blocks of proteins.

How many different amino acids exist?

There are 20 different amino acids.

What is the primary structure of a protein?

The linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

What distinguishes the Golgi Complex's function in a cell?

It modifies, processes, and sorts proteins for secretion.

What organelle is responsible for producing ATP?

Mitochondria.

What do lysosomes contain, and what is their function?

They contain digestive enzymes used to break down old organelles and debris.

What is the function of vacuoles in plant cells?

They store water, food, wastes, salts, or pigments.

Define osmosis.

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

What is active transport?

The movement of substances against their concentration gradient, requiring energy.

What is the fluid mosaic model?

A model describing the structure of cell membranes as a mosaic of various components.

What are transcription factors?

Proteins that help regulate gene expression by aiding or inhibiting transcription.

Define mutation in genetics.

An error in the genetic code that can lead to changes in the organism.

What is the Hardy-Weinberg law?

A principle stating that the frequencies of genotypes in a population are constantantly stable under certain conditions.

What is meant by ecological succession?

The predictable procession of plant communities over time.

What is a keystone species?

A species that has a disproportionately large impact on its environment relative to its abundance.

What are nucleotides made of?

a phosphate group, a five-carbon sugar , and a nitrogenous base

What are the nitrogenous bases?

The building blocks of nucleotides. include adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine in DNA, and uracil in RNA.

What does Uracil replace in RNA

Thymine

Protein Primary strucure

A string of animo acids linked together by peptide bonds

What is peptide

bonds that link amino acids together in proteins.

A phospholipid is…

Amphipathic (hydrophillic and hydrophobic)

Glyccerol is….

hydrophillic (head)

Fatty acids are..

hydrophobic (tails)

Satruared Fatty acid

Single bonded saturated by hydrogen carbon atoms, leading to a straight structure.

Unsaturated Fat

one or more double bonds between carbon atoms, resulting in bends

Secondary Protein Structure

hydrogen bonds between backbone atoms create alpha helices and beta sheets.

Tertiary protein structure

bonded by any type between different r-groups of different polypeptides that results in a 3D shape.

Quarternary Structure

Same as tertiary protein structure

Where is start found?

in plants

Where is glycogen found

In plants

Are lipids polar or non polar?

NONPOLAR

How is surface tension developed?

Surface tension is developed due to the cohesive forces between liquid molecules at the surface, where they experience a net inward force.

Adhesion

Water molecules attracted to polar molecules

How is capillary action developed?

Adhesion and Cohesion combined

What is special about water’s specific high heat

Water must absorb or release a large amount of energy to change its temp

Endergonic Reaction

Not spontanous, absorbs energy during the reaction; products have higher energy than reactants.

Exogonic Reaction

Spontanous, releases energy during the reaction; products have lower energy than reactants.

What is Gibbs free energy

Formula to find the energy to do work.

Cellular respiration

cells converting glucose and oxygen into ATP carbon dioxide, and water, involving glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Glycolysis

1st step of cellular respiration, glucose is breaks into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH.

Kreb cycle

A series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA, producing ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

Aerobic factors

that influence the process of cellular respiration and require oxygen to efficiently generate ATP.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

The final stage of cellular respiration, where ATP is produced through the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis, using the energy released from electrons transferred by NADH and FADH2.

Where does oxidative phosporylation take place?

inner mitochondrial membrane. (Cristae)

Where does the kreb cycle take place?

Mitochondrial matrix

Where does glycolysis take place?

Cytosol

Chemiosmosis

The process that uses a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane to drive ATP synthesis.

Electron transport chain

Series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane that transfer electrons and pump protons to generate a proton gradient, ultimately leading to ATP production.

Light dependent reactions

1st stage of photosynthesis, where light energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.

Where do light independent reactions occur?

Stroma

Where do light dependent reactions occur?

Thylakoid membranes

Light independent reactions

2nd step of photosynthesis, using ATP and NADPH from the light dependent reactions to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.

Calvin cycle

Set of light-independent reactions in photosynthesis, converting 3CO2, 9ATP, 6NADPH into G3P.

Where does the calvin cycle occur?

Stroma

Simple diffusion

movement of molecules from a higher concentration to an area of lower concentration with no input of energy or transport proteins.

Passive transport

movement of molecules across a membrane via specific transport proteins, from higher to lower concentration, without energy. transports small and nonpolar molecules

Facilitated diffusion

movement of molecules across a membrane through protein channels, down the concentration gradient, requires transport protein. type of passive transport that allows larger or polar molecules to pass through the cell membrane.

Which ones are passive transport? (simple, facilitated and active transport)

Simple and facilitated

Active protein

transport requiring energy to move molecules against the concentration gradient. Moves larger or charged molecules across the membrane.

Endocytosis

Import of materials

Exocytosis

Export of materials

Hypertonic solution

High solute concentration, low water concentration; gains water causing cells to lose water and potentially shrink.

Hypotonic solution

Low solute concentration, high water concentration; loses water causing cells to swell and burst.

Plasma membrane

A selective barrier that regulates the entry and exit of substances in and out of the cell.

What is the plasma membrane made out of?

Phospholipids, membrane proteins, glycolipids/ glycoproteins and cholesterol

Co-dominance

Dominant alleles in a heterozygous individual are fully expressed, resulting in a phenotype that displays both traits.

Incomplete dominance

Heterozygous of a blend between two dominant traits

Dihybrid

Heterozygous for two traits

Monohybrid

Heterozygous for one trait

Autosomal inheritance

Non-sex chromosome located on an autosome

Linked genes

Genes located on the same chromosome and tend to be inherited together.

Sex linked

inheritance of genes on sex chromosomes, often affecting traits with different expressions in males and females.