AP Psych Unit 5 Part 1-Cognition

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97 Terms

1

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

<p>all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.</p>
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memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

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concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

<p>a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.</p>
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prototype

a mental image or best example of a category.

<p>a mental image or best example of a category.</p>
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encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

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heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.

<p>a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.</p>
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insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

<p>a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.</p>
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8

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

<p>judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.</p>
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availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

<p>estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.</p>
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10

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

<p>the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.</p>
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belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

<p>clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.</p>
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semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning.

<p>the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning.</p>
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babbling stage

babies spontaneously uttering a variety of words, such as ah-goo

<p>babies spontaneously uttering a variety of words, such as ah-goo</p>
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serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

<p>our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.</p>
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15

Wernicke's area

language comprehension part of the brain

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16

Benjamin Whorf

language; his hypothesis is that language determines the way we think

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retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

<p>the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.</p>
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repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

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episodic memory

Explicit memories that have a time and a place.

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Deep processing

Similar to elaboratiave rehearsal; connecting semantics of a new word to LTM which builds a strong memory trace that is resistant to memory decay.

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context dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

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anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

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23

George Miller

Found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (+/- 2) items.

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algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics.

<p>a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics.</p>
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storage

the retention of encoded information over time.

<p>the retention of encoded information over time.</p>
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creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

<p>the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.</p>
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confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

<p>a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.</p>
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retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

<p>the process of getting information out of memory storage.</p>
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fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set.

<p>the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set.</p>
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mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

<p>a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.</p>
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sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

<p>the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.</p>
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functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.

<p>the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.</p>
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short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.

<p>activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.</p>
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long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

<p>the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.</p>
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working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

<p>a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.</p>
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intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

<p>an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.</p>
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framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

<p>the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.</p>
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language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

<p>our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.</p>
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automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

<p>unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.</p>
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phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

<p>in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.</p>
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effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

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42

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).

<p>in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).</p>
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43

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.

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syntax

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.

<p>the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.</p>
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spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

<p>the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.</p>
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46

one-word stage

the stage in which children speak mainly in single words

<p>the stage in which children speak mainly in single words</p>
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two-word stage

they start uttering two word sentences; also known as telegraphic speech

<p>they start uttering two word sentences; also known as telegraphic speech</p>
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48

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think.

<p>Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think.</p>
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critical period

a specific time in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned such as language

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50

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

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Broca's area

speech production part of the brain

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semantic encoding

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.

<p>the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.</p>
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Noam Chomsky

theorist who believed that humans have an inborn or "native" propensity to develop language

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54

imagery

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.

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mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

<p>memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.</p>
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chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units in STM because space is limited to 7 bits. This increasing the efficiency of STM.

<p>organizing items into familiar, manageable units in STM because space is limited to 7 bits. This increasing the efficiency of STM.</p>
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57

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

<p>a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.</p>
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echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

<p>A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.</p>
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long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

<p>an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.</p>
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flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

<p>a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.</p>
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implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called non-declarative or procedural memory.)

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explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)

<p>memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)</p>
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hippocampus

a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

<p>a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.</p>
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recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

<p>a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.</p>
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recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

<p>a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.</p>
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relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.

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priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

<p>the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.</p>
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mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

<p>the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.</p>
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proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

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misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

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source amnesia/misattribution

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

<p>attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.</p>
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procedural memory

Implicit memories (retrieved unconsciously) which involved motor skills; for example; riding a bike, typing, and tying a shoe.

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Curve of forgetting

Indicates LTM decay over time. Rapid decay occurs within the first 20 minutes and then memory decay slows down to 20-30% over 30 days.

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Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information with memories already stored in LTM.

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Shallow Processing

Phonetic memory building which leads to a fragile memory trace that is susceptible to rapid decay. (Focusing on how to say the word).

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cerebellum

Brain part that stores implicit memories.

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state-dependent memory

Long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's physiological state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same.

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retrograde amnesia

loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

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79

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

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80

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well

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motivated forgetting

forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable

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retrieval failure

the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues

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83

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

A model for describing memory in which there are three distinguishable kinds of memory (sensory, short term, long term) through which info passes in a sequential way as it is processed.

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semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world (fact memories)

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85

distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

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86

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

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recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

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deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

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parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

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selective attention

the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

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divided attention

concentrating on more than one activity at the same time

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Metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

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prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

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94

Wolfgang Kohler

researcher who studied insight learning in chimps

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testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

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convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

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divergent thinking

a type of creative thinking in which one generates new solutions to problems

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