Intro to Sociology (Ch. 2)

Quantitative research

Research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically. This type of research often tries to find cause-and-effect relationships. (Strictly uses scientific method)

Qualitative research

Research that works with nonnumerical data such as texts, field notes, interview transcripts, photographs, and tape recordings. This type of research often tries to understand how people make sense of their world.

Scientific method

A procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting data through observation and experiment.

Literature review

A thorough search through previously published studies relevant to a particular topic.

Hypothesis

A theoretical statement explaining the relationship between two or more phenomena.

Variables

Two or more phenomena that a researcher believes are related. These will be examined in the experiment.

Operational definition

A clear and precise definition of a variable that facilitates its measurement.

Replicability

The ability of research to be repeated and, thus, later verified by other researchers.

Correlation

A relationship between variables in which they change together and may or may not be causal.

Causation

A relationship between variables in which a change in one directly produces a change in the other.

Intervening variable

A third variable, sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables.

Spurious correlation

The appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable.

Deductive approach

An approach whereby the researcher formulates a hypothesis first and then gathers data to test that hypothesis.

Inductive approach

An approach whereby the researcher gathers data first, then formulates a theory to fit the data.

Paradigm Shift

When an entire approach of research is changed/modified drastically.

Ethnography

A naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities. Also, the written work that results from the study. (“Observer studying a college class”)

Participant observation

A methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting. (“The students experience of a class”)

Rapport (Rap-poor)

A positive relationship often characterized by mutual trust or sympathy.

Field notes

Detailed notes taken by an ethnographer describing their activities and interactions, which later become the basis of the analysis. (Extremely detailed, on the environment and how its interacted with)

Autoethnography

A form of participant observation in which the feelings and actions of the researcher become a focal point of the ethnographic study. (beyond photographic detail to explore all the possible meanings of a phenomenon within a particular cultural setting)

Thick description

The presentation of detailed data on interactions and meaning within a cultural context, from the perspective of its members.

Reflexivity

How the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting.

Grounded theory

An inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships among categories.

Representativeness

The degree to which a particular group studied is similar to, or represents, any part of the larger society.

Validity

The accuracy of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which a researcher is measuring what they think they are measuring.

Interviews

Person-to-person conversations for the purpose of gathering information by means of questions posed to respondents.

Respondent

A participant in a study from whom the researcher seeks to gather information.

Focus group

A process for interviewing a number of participants together that also allows for interaction among group members. (group interviews-kinda)

Informed consent

A safeguard through which the researcher makes sure that respondents are freely participating and understand the nature of the research.

Closed-ended question

A question asked of a respondent that imposes a limit on the possible responses.

Open-ended question

A question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses.

Leading questions

Questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way. (Ask, “so it sounds like you didn’t like this. Why didn’t you like this?” Instead ask “What were your feelings about this? What did you like or dislike about it?”)

Double-barreled questions

Questions that attempt to get at multiple issues at once and so tend to receive incomplete or confusing answers.

Life history

An approach to interviewing that asks for a chronological account of the respondent’s entire life or some portion of it.

Surveys

Research method based on questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population.

Likert scale

A way of formatting a survey questionnaire so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum. (1-5, 1-worst/5-best)

Negative questions

Survey questions that ask respondents what they don’t think instead of what they do think.

Pilot study

A small-scale study carried out to test the feasibility of conducting a study on a larger scale.

Probability sampling

Any sampling procedure that uses randomization.

Simple random sample

A particular type of probability sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Response rate

The number or percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers.

Reliability

The consistency of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which the same questions will produce similar answers.

Existing sources

Materials that have been produced for some other reason but that can be used as data for social research.

Unobtrusive measures

Research methods that rely on existing sources and whereby the researcher does not intrude upon or disturb the social setting or its subjects.

Comparative historical research

Research that uses existing sources to study relationships among elements of society in various regions and time periods.

Content analysis

A method in which researchers identify and study specific variables or themes that appear in a text, image, or media message.

Experiments

Formal tests of specific variables and effects, performed in a setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled.

Experimental group

The members of a test group who receive the experimental treatment.

Control group

The members of a test group who are allowed to continue without intervention so that they can be compared with the experimental group.

Independent variable

The factor that is predicted to cause change.

Dependent variable

The factor that is changed (or not) by the independent variable.

Basic research

The search for knowledge without an agenda or practical goal in mind.

Applied research

The search for knowledge that can be used to create social change.

Objectivity

Impartiality; the ability to allow the facts to speak for themselves.

Reactivity

The tendency of people and events to react to the process of being studied.

Hawthorne effect

A specific example of reactivity, in which the desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself.

Deception

The extent to which the participants in a research project are unaware of the project or its goals.

Confidentiality

The assurance that no one other than the researcher will know the identity of a respondent.

Code of ethics

Ethical guidelines for researchers to consult as they design a project.

Institutional review board

A group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects