Key Concepts in American Government

Federalism

A system of government in which power is divided between a federal and state gov

Separation of Powers

The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to limit any one branch from exercising the core functions of another.

Checks and Balances

A system that ensures that no branch of government becomes too powerful by providing each branch with the means to limit the powers of the others.

Popular Sovereignty

The principle that the authority of a state and its government is created and sustained by the consent of its people.

Judicial Review

The power of courts to assess whether a law is in compliance with the constitution.

Limited Government

A political system where the legalized force is restricted through delegated and enumerated powers.

Rule of Law

The principle that all people and institutions are subject to and accountable to the law that is fairly applied and enforced.

Enumerated Powers

Powers specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution.

Implied Powers

Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution but are implied by the necessary and proper clause.

Reserved Powers

Powers that are not enumerated and are therefore reserved for the states.

Concurrent Powers

Powers that are shared by both the federal and state governments.

Supremacy Clause

A clause in the Constitution stating that federal law takes precedence over state law.

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)

A clause that allows Congress to make laws it deems necessary and proper to carry out its enumerated powers.

Commerce Clause

A clause that gives Congress the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

A clause requiring states to recognize the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state.

Due Process Clause

A clause that guarantees a person the right to a fair trial and legal proceedings.

Equal Protection Clause

A clause that requires states to provide equal protection under the law to all persons.

Establishment Clause

A clause that prohibits the government from establishing an official religion.

Free Exercise Clause

A clause that protects individuals' rights to practice their religion as they please.

Political Socialization

The process by which individuals learn and develop their political beliefs and values.

Political Ideology

A set of beliefs about politics and government.

Party Polarization

The divergence of political attitudes to ideological extremes.

Interest Groups

Organizations of people who share common objectives and actively seek to influence policymakers.

Lobbying

The act of attempting to influence the decisions of government officials, often legislators or members of regulatory agencies.

Political Action Committee (PAC)

An organization that raises money privately to influence elections or legislation.

Super PAC

A type of independent political action committee that may raise unlimited sums of money from corporations, unions, and individuals.

Electoral College

A body of electors established by the Constitution that formally elects the President and Vice President of the United States.

Gerrymandering

The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one party over another.

Redistricting

The process of redrawing district boundaries to reflect population changes.

Incumbency Advantage

The electoral edge afforded to those already in office.

Midterm Elections

Elections held in the middle of a president's term.

Primary Elections

Elections held to determine a party's candidate for the general election.

Caucus

A meeting of supporters or members of a specific political party or movement.

Open vs. Closed Primaries

Open primaries allow any registered voter to participate, while closed primaries restrict participation to registered party members.

Delegate vs. Superdelegate

Delegates are pledged to vote for a candidate based on primary results, while superdelegates can support any candidate regardless of primary outcomes.

Hard Money vs. Soft Money

Hard money is regulated and limited contributions to candidates, while soft money refers to unregulated contributions to party organizations.

Citizens United v. FEC

A landmark Supreme Court case that ruled that political spending is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment.

Campaign Finance

The funds raised and spent for political campaigns.

Grassroots Mobilization

A strategy that relies on the participation of the general public in political campaigns.

Political Efficacy

The belief that one's participation in politics can make a difference.

Voter Turnout

The percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election.

Swing States

States where both major political parties have similar levels of support among voters.

Split-Ticket Voting

The practice of voting for candidates of different parties for different offices in the same election.

Straight-Ticket Voting

The practice of voting for all candidates of one party in an election.

Pluralism

A theory that multiple groups, interests, and ideas coexist and compete for influence in politics.

Hyperpluralism

A theory that suggests that too many groups are trying to influence policy, leading to gridlock.

Elitism

The belief that a small group of elite individuals hold significant power over political decisions.

Iron Triangle

The stable, mutually beneficial relationship between interest groups, bureaucratic agencies, and congressional committees.

Issue Networks

A loose grouping of individuals and organizations that come together to advocate for a specific issue.

Bureaucracy

A system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives.

Executive Orders

Directives issued by the President of the United States to manage the operations of the federal government.

Veto Power

The power of the President to reject a bill passed by Congress.

Pocket Veto

A type of veto that occurs when the President takes no action on a bill for ten days while Congress is adjourned.

Line-Item Veto

The power of an executive to nullify or cancel specific provisions of a bill without vetoing the entire bill.

War Powers Resolution

A federal law intended to check the President's power to commit the United States to an armed conflict without the consent of Congress.

Signing Statements

Written comments issued by the President at the time of signing legislation.

Filibuster

A tactic used in the Senate to delay or block legislative action.

Cloture

A procedure used in the Senate to end a filibuster and bring a bill to a vote.

Logrolling

The practice of exchanging favors, especially in politics by reciprocal voting for each other's proposed legislation.

Pork Barrel Spending

The appropriation of government spending for localized projects secured solely or primarily to bring money to a representative's district.

Discretionary Spending

Government spending implemented through an appropriations bill, which is not mandated by existing law.

Mandatory Spending

Expenditures that are required by existing law, such as Social Security and Medicare.

Entitlement Programs

Government programs that provide financial benefits to individuals who meet certain eligibility requirements.

Social Security

A federal program that provides retirement, disability, and survivor benefits.

Medicare vs. Medicaid

Medicare is a federal program that provides health coverage for the elderly, while Medicaid is a state and federal program that provides health coverage for low-income individuals.

Fiscal Policy

The use of government spending and taxation to influence the economy.

Monetary Policy

The process by which the monetary authority of a country controls the supply of money, often targeting an inflation rate or interest rate.

Federal Reserve

The central banking system of the United States, which regulates the U.S. monetary and financial system.

Judicial Activism vs. Judicial Restraint

Judicial activism is the philosophy that courts should actively interpret the Constitution and laws, while judicial restraint advocates for a limited role for the judiciary.

Stare Decisis

The legal principle of determining points in litigation according to precedent.

Writ of Certiorari

An order by which a higher court reviews a case decided by a lower court.

Amicus Curiae Briefs

Legal documents filed by non-litigants with a strong interest in the subject matter, advising the court of relevant, additional information.

Majority Opinion vs. Dissenting Opinion

The majority opinion is the official statement of the court's decision, while the dissenting opinion expresses disagreement with the majority.

Civil Liberties vs. Civil Rights

Civil liberties are individual rights protected by law from unjust governmental interference, while civil rights are the rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality.

Affirmative Action

Policies that take factors including race, color, religion, sex, or national origin into consideration to benefit an underrepresented group.

Title IX

A federal law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in any federally funded education program or activity.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

A civil rights law that prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

A landmark piece of federal legislation in the United States that prohibits racial discrimination in voting.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

A landmark civil rights law that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

A proposed amendment to the United States Constitution designed to guarantee equal legal rights for all American citizens regardless of sex.

First Amendment Freedoms

The rights to freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition.

Second Amendment Rights

The right of the people to keep and bear arms.

Fourth Amendment Protections

Protection against unreasonable searches and seizures.

Miranda Rights

Rights that must be read to a person in custody before interrogation, informing them of their right to remain silent and to an attorney.

Habeas Corpus

A legal principle that protects against unlawful and indefinite imprisonment.

Exclusionary Rule

A legal rule that prohibits the use of illegally obtained evidence in a criminal trial.

Double Jeopardy

The legal principle that prohibits an individual from being tried twice for the same offense.

Devolution

The transfer of powers and responsibilities from the federal government to the states.

Block Grants vs. Categorical Grants

Block grants are funds given to states for broad purposes, while categorical grants are funds for specific purposes.

Unfunded Mandates

Regulations or new laws that require state or local governments to perform certain actions without providing funding.

Federalist Papers

A series of essays written to promote the ratification of the United States Constitution.

Brutus No. 1

An anti-federalist paper arguing against the ratification of the Constitution.

Articles of Confederation

The first constitution of the United States, which created a weak federal government.

U.S. Constitution

The supreme law of the United States that outlines the national framework of government.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution that guarantee individual rights.

Declaration of Independence

The document declaring the thirteen American colonies independent from British rule.

McCulloch v. Maryland

A landmark Supreme Court case that established the principle of federal supremacy over state laws.

Marbury v. Madison

A landmark Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review.

Brown v. Board of Education

A landmark Supreme Court case that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

Roe v. Wade

A landmark Supreme Court case that ruled women should have the right to abortion and privacy.