AP psych major test

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing remembering, and communicating

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects,events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items of a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categrories

creativity

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the best single solution

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking)

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier- but also more error prone- use of heuristics

heuristics

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error prone than algortithms

insights

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy based solutions

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their a availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness) we presume such events are common

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct, to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

belief preserverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

fluid intelligence

the ability to think abstractly and solve new problems using logic and judgment. It's a cognitive ability that's not dependent on prior knowledge. 

crystallized intelligence

the ability to use knowledge and skills gained through learning and experience

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget’s theory the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities (Object permanence develops)

preoperational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage from about 2 to about 6 years of 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic (Egocentrism and symbolic thought)

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete Operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the focus of objects

egocentrism

In Piaget’s theory the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

concrete operational stage

in Piaget’s theory the stage pf cognitive development, (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events (Conservation and logical thinking)

formal operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts (Abstract and hypothetical reasoning)

Algorithms

Step-by-step logical procedures that guarantee solving a problem.

○ Example: Math formulas, such as long division or following a detailed recipe.

Decision-Making Skills

Key elements include:

○ Identifying goals and evaluating all possible options.

○ Avoiding impulsive decisions.

○ Understanding costs versus benefits.

Confirmation Bias:

Seeking out information that supports existing beliefs.

Anchoring Bias:

Over-reliance on the first piece of information received.

Hindsight Bias

Believing you "knew it all along" after an event occurs.

Overconfidence Bias

Overestimating one’s knowledge or abilities.

Verbal Ability (Spearman’s G Factor)

Skills related to language comprehension and expression.

Mathematical Ability (Spearman’s G Factor)

Proficiency in numerical reasoning and problem-solving.

Spatial Ability (Spearman’s G Factor)

The capacity to visualize and manipulate objects in space.

Memory (Spearman’s G Factor)

The ability to retain and recall information.

Reasoning (Spearman’s G Factor)

The skill involved in logical thinking and drawing conclusions.

Linguistic Intelligence (Gardener)

Ability to use language effectively for communication.

■ Skills in reading, writing, storytelling, and understanding complex meanings.

■ Often seen in poets, writers, and effective public speakers.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Gardener)

Capacity for deductive reasoning, problem-solving, and mathematical

calculations.

■ Involves the ability to think logically and recognize patterns.

■ Commonly found in mathematicians, scientists, and engineers.

Spatial Intelligence (Gardener)

Skill in visualizing and manipulating objects in space.

■ Includes abilities such as navigation, drawing, and understanding spatial

relationships.

■ Typically seen in architects, artists, and pilots.

Musical Intelligence (Gardener)

Sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, melody, and tone.

■ Involves the ability to perform music or understand musical structures.

■ Found in musicians, composers, and music critics.

Interpersonal Intelligence (Gardener)

Ability to understand and interact effectively with others.

■ Involves skills such as empathy, communication, and conflict resolution.

■ Common among teachers, social workers, and leaders.

Intrapersonal Intelligence (Gardener)

Capacity for self-awareness and self-reflection.

■ Involves understanding one’s own emotions, motivations, and goals.

■ Often seen in philosophers or psychologists who engage deeply with their inner

thoughts.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (Gardener)

■ Proficiency in using one’s body to express feelings or create products.

■ Involves physical coordination and dexterity.

■ Commonly found in athletes, dancers, surgeons, and craftspeople.

Naturalistic Intelligence (Gardener)

Ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals, and other elements of nature.

■ Involves sensitivity to the natural world and ecological systems.

■ Typically seen in biologists, environmentalists, or farmers.

Analytical Intelligence (Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory)

Problem-solving and academic skills.

Creative Intelligence (Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory)

Innovation and adaptability.

Practical Intelligence (Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory)

Street smarts and real-world skills.

Self-Awareness (Coleman)

The ability to recognize and understand one’s own emotions.

● Involves being aware of how emotions affect thoughts and behavior.

● Includes self-confidence and a realistic assessment of one’s strengths and

weaknesses.

Self-Regulation (Coleman)

The capacity to manage one’s emotions in a healthy way.

● Involves controlling impulsive feelings and behaviors.

● Includes the ability to adapt to changing circumstances and maintain

emotional balance.

Motivation (Coleman)

A drive to achieve for the sake of achievement rather than external

rewards.

● Involves setting personal goals and striving for excellence.

● Includes resilience in the face of setbacks and maintaining a positive

attitude.

Empathy Coleman)

The ability to understand the emotional makeup of other people.

● Involves recognizing others’ feelings and responding appropriately.

● Includes skills in developing social networks and managing relationships.

Social Skills (Coleman)

Proficiency in managing relationships and building networks.

● Involves effective communication, conflict resolution, and teamwork.

● Includes the ability to inspire or influence others while fostering

collaboration.

UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus)

Naturally triggers a response

UCR (Unconditioned Response)

Natural reaction to UCS.

CS (Conditioned Stimulus)

Previously neutral stimulus that triggers a response

after conditioning.

CR (Conditioned Response)

Learned response to the CS.

Positive Reinforcement:

Adding a reward to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement:

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase

behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

Observational Learning (Modeling) (Bandura)

Definition: Observational learning, also known as modeling, is a process where

individuals learn behaviors by watching others perform those behaviors.

○ Mechanism: This type of learning occurs without direct reinforcement or

punishment; instead, it relies on the observation of others and the consequences they

face.

Key Elements:

■ Attention: The learner must pay attention to the model’s behavior.

■ Retention: The learner must be able to remember the behavior that was

observed.

■ Reproduction: The learner must have the ability to reproduce the observed

behavior.

Motivation: The learner must have a reason to imitate the behavior, which

can be influenced by rewards or punishments observed.

Bobo Doll Experiment

Overview: Conducted in 1961, this experiment involved children observing an adult

interacting aggressively with a Bobo doll (an inflatable toy).

○ Findings: Children who observed aggressive behavior were more likely to imitate that

aggression when given the opportunity to play with the doll themselves.

■ The study highlighted how children could learn social behaviors through

observation rather than direct experience.

○ Implications: Demonstrated that exposure to violence in media could lead to increased

aggression in children.

■ Provided empirical evidence for Bandura’s theory of observational learning and

its impact on behavior.

Reciprocal Determinism

Definition: Reciprocal determinism is a concept that describes how personal factors,

environmental influences, and behavior all interact and influence each other.

○ Components:

■ Behavior: Actions taken by an individual in response to their environment or

personal beliefs.

■ Personal Factors: Individual characteristics such as cognitive processes,

emotions, and biological factors that affect how one behaves.

■ Environment: External social and physical contexts that can shape behavior and

influence personal factors.

○ Significance:

■ Emphasizes that individuals are not merely passive recipients of environmental

influences; they actively shape their own experiences through their choices and

actions.

■ Highlights the complexity of human behavior by acknowledging multiple

interacting influences rather than attributing actions solely to either internal traits

or external circumstances.

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Zone between what a learner can do alone and what they can achieve with guidance.

● Importance of scaffolding: Support tailored to the learner’s needs.

Harlow’s Monkey Study:

Background of the study-

○ Objective: The primary goal was to investigate the nature of attachment between infant

monkeys and their mothers.

○ Subjects: The study involved rhesus monkeys, which were separated from their biological

mothers shortly after birth.

○ Experimental Setup: Two types of surrogate mothers were created:

■ A wire mother that provided food (nourishment).

■ A cloth mother that was soft and provided comfort but did not provide food.

● Key Findings-

○ Preference for Comfort:

■ Monkeys showed a clear preference for the cloth mother over the wire mother,

spending significantly more time clinging to the soft surrogate even when

nourishment was available from the wire mother.

■ This behavior indicated that physical comfort was more important than food in

forming attachments.

○ Response to Stress:

■ When frightened by a loud noise or unfamiliar situation, infants would seek

comfort from the cloth mother rather than approach the wire mother for food.

■ This demonstrated that emotional security is crucial during stressful situations.

○ Social Development:

■ Monkeys raised with only wire mothers exhibited severe social deficits; they

were less likely to engage in normal social behaviors and displayed signs of

anxiety and aggression.

■ In contrast, those raised with cloth mothers showed more typical social behaviors

when later introduced to other monkeys.

● Implications for attachment theory-

○ Attachment Styles: The study supported John Bowlby’s attachment theory,

emphasizing that secure attachments are formed through emotional bonds rather

than just physiological needs.

○ Importance of Early Relationships: It highlighted how early relationships with

caregivers can shape emotional health and social behavior throughout life.

● Long term effects-

○ Behavioral Issues: Monkeys raised without adequate maternal care (i.e., only with

wire mothers) often faced long-term psychological issues, including difficulties in

mating and parenting when they reached adulthood.

○ Influence on Human Psychology: The findings have been extrapolated to human

development, suggesting that children also require emotional support and comfort

from caregivers for healthy psychological development.

Secure (Ainsworth’s Strange Situation)

Comforted by caregiver.

Avoidant (Ainsworth’s Strange Situation)

Independent and avoids caregiver.

Ambivalent (Ainsworth’s Strange Situation)

Clingy and anxious.

Disorganized (Ainsworth’s Strange Situation)

Confused or fearful.

Trust vs Mistrust (Infancy:0-1 year) (Erikson)

Key Conflict: Infants learn to trust their caregivers and the environment.

○ Positive Outcome: If caregivers provide reliable care and affection, infants develop a

sense of trust.

○ Negative Outcome: Lack of consistency or care leads to feelings of mistrust and

insecurity.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood: 1-3 years) (Erikson)

Key Conflict: Children begin to assert independence and personal control over

physical skills.

○ Positive Outcome: Successful resolution leads to autonomy and confidence in

abilities.

○ Negative Outcome: Overly critical or controlling caregivers may instill feelings of

shame and doubt about abilities.

Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool Age: 3-6 years) (Erikson)

Key Conflict: Children initiate activities and interact with others, exploring their

environment.

○ Positive Outcome: Encouragement fosters initiative, leading to leadership skills and

decision-making.

○ Negative Outcome: If discouraged or controlled, children may feel guilt over their

needs and desires.

Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age: 6-12 years) (Erikson)

Key Conflict: Children develop a sense of pride in accomplishments through social

interactions.

○ Positive Outcome: Success leads to feelings of competence and achievement.

○ Negative Outcome: Failure or lack of encouragement can result in feelings of

inferiority.

Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence: 12-18 years) (Erikson)

Key Conflict: Teens explore different identities and roles within society.

○ Positive Outcome: Successful navigation leads to a strong sense of self and personal

identity.

○ Negative Outcome: Confusion about one’s role can lead to instability in self-concept.

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood: 18-40 years) (Erikson)

Key Conflict: Young adults seek deep relationships while balancing personal

independence.

○ Positive Outcome: Successful relationships foster intimacy, love, and connection

with others.

○ Negative Outcome: Failure to establish meaningful connections can lead to isolation

and loneliness.

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood: 40-65 years) (Erikson)

Key Conflict: Adults strive to create or nurture things that will outlast them,

contributing to society.

○ Positive Outcome: A sense of contribution leads to feelings of usefulness and

accomplishment.

○ Negative Outcome: Lack of productivity results in stagnation and self-centeredness.

Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood: 65+ years) (Erikson)

Key Conflict: Older adults reflect on their lives, evaluating their experiences as

either fulfilling or regretful.

○ Positive Outcome: A sense of fulfillment leads to wisdom and acceptance of life’s

journey.

○ Negative Outcome: Regret over unachieved goals can result in despair.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACES) and Trauma

Impact of ACEs on physical, mental, and emotional development.

● Long-term effects: Increased risk of chronic illness, mental health issues, and impaired

relationships.

Authoritative

Warm, supportive, yet firm. Leads to high self-esteem in children.

Authoritarian

Strict, less warmth. Can lead to low self-esteem.

Permissive

High warmth, little control. May result in impulsivity.

Neglectful

Low warmth and control. Associated with poor outcomes in children.

Gender Identity, Norms, and Development

Biological, cognitive, and environmental influences on gender identity formation.

● Socialization of gender roles through toys, media, and family norms.

Chomsky

Language Acquisition Device (LAD), universal grammar.

Skinner

Reinforcement and imitation

Critical Period Hypothesis

Optimal time frame for learning language

Microsystem (Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model)

Immediate environment (family, school).

Mesosystem (Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model)

Interactions between microsystems (e.g., parent-teacher relationships).

Exosystem (Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model)

Indirect influences (e.g., parental work stress).

Macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model)

Societal and cultural factors.

Chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model)

Changes over the individual’s lifespan.

conservation

a child's ability to understand that a quantity remains the same even when its appearance changes

anxious attachment style

It is characterized by a pattern of intense anxiety, fear of abandonment, and a strong need for reassurance and closeness in relationships. 

accomodation

the process of changing or creating new schemas to fit new information or experiences

secure attachment style

characterized by trust, emotional intimacy, and the ability to form close, supportive relationships

dismissive- avoidant attachment style

a style of relating to others that involves avoiding closeness and emotional intimacy

fearful avoidant

a pattern of behavior that involves both wanting closeness and fearing it

schema

a cognitive structure that organizes and interprets information about the world