Baba key terms contemporary urban

What is a conurbation and global urban growth?

Conurbation: A large urban area formed when cities spread out and merge with nearby towns or rural regions. Global urban growth: The increasing concentration of population in urban areas; by 2050, 70% of the global population is expected to live in cities.

What are HDE, LDE and natural increase?

HDE (Highly Developed Economy): Countries with high income levels, infrastructure, and urbanisation; urban growth is slow or declining. LDE (Less Developed Economy): Countries with low income levels and infrastructure, but experiencing the fastest urbanisation rates. Natural increase: The growth in population due to the number of births exceeding deaths, not including migration.

What are over-urbanisation and push-pull factors?

Over-urbanisation: A situation where the rate of urban population growth exceeds economic development, leading to unemployment and service pressure. Push-pull factors: Conditions that drive people away from rural areas (push) and attract them to cities (pull), such as job opportunities and better services.

What are rural-urban migration, urban growth and urbanisation?

Rural-urban migration: Movement of people from the countryside to towns and cities in search of better opportunities. Urban growth: Increase in the physical size or population of urban areas. Urbanisation: The increasing proportion of people living in towns and cities, often linked to industrialisation and migration.

What is the urbanisation pathway?

A model showing how urbanisation develops through stages, from rural societies to urban and then suburban spread.

What are alpha cities and economies of scale?

Alpha cities: Major global cities ranked by economic power, influence, and connectivity (e.g. London, New York, Tokyo). Economies of scale: Cost advantages gained by concentrating goods and services in one place, typical in megacities.

What are internal growth and a megacity?

Internal growth: Population increase within cities due to high birth rates among existing residents. Megacity: An urban area with a population exceeding 10 million people.

What are the multiplier effect and peri-urban growth?

Multiplier effect: A positive cycle where investment leads to job creation, population growth, and further economic activity. Peri-urban growth: Expansion of the urban fringe as people move to areas surrounding city centres.

What are the service sector and world cities?

Service sector: Part of the economy that provides services rather than goods, dominant in most megacities. World cities: Influential cities that act as hubs for finance, politics, culture, and innovation on a global scale (e.g. London, New York).

What are agglomeration and a brownfield site?

Agglomeration: The concentration of people and activities in one area, leading to city growth. Brownfield site: Previously developed land, often industrial, that can be redeveloped during urban regeneration.

What are counter-urbanisation and decentralisation?

Counter-urbanisation: Movement of people from cities to rural areas, often for quality of life improvements or affordability. Decentralisation: The movement of people, jobs, and services away from central urban areas to the suburbs or beyond.

What are deindustrialisation and dormitory settlements?

Deindustrialisation: The decline of industrial activity in urban areas, often due to global competition and relocation of industries abroad. Dormitory settlements: Suburban or rural communities where residents mainly sleep, while still working and using services in the city.

What are gated communities and green belt?

Gated communities: Privately developed residential areas with restricted access, often associated with urban social inequality. Green belt: Areas of open land around cities where development is restricted to prevent urban sprawl.

What are informal settlements and the positive multiplier effect?

Informal settlements: Unregulated housing developments often found in rapidly urbanising cities, lacking basic services and infrastructure. Positive multiplier effect: When initial investment in a city leads to further economic and social benefits, such as job creation and infrastructure growth.

What are re-urbanisation and the service economy?

Re-urbanisation: Also known as urban resurgence; the movement of people back into cities due to regeneration and improved services. Service economy: The part of the economy focused on providing services like retail, banking, and healthcare, rather than manufacturing.

What are suburbanisation, urban blight and urban regeneration?

Suburbanisation: The growth of residential areas on the outskirts of cities, often linked to transport improvements and lifestyle changes. Urban blight: Decay of urban areas due to neglect, often following deindustrialisation and disinvestment. Urban regeneration: Redevelopment of run-down urban areas to improve the environment, housing, and economic opportunities.

What are automotive bias and CBD?

Automotive bias: A characteristic of many urban areas prioritising cars and roads, often leading to sprawl and congestion. CBD (Central Business District): The core area of a city where retail, business, and entertainment activities are concentrated.

What are density and housing zones?

Density: Refers to how compact or spread out population and buildings are in an urban area. Housing zones: Differ between HDEs and LDEs; HDEs often have high land values near the centre, while LDEs feature informal housing at the fringes.

What are infrastructure and land value?

Infrastructure: Basic systems and services such as transport, water, energy, and communications that support urban life. Land value: Highest in the CBD and typically decreases with distance; influenced by desirability, accessibility, and economic changes.

What are planned vs unplanned growth and segregation?

Planned vs. unplanned growth: Planned growth includes structured city layouts with infrastructure, while unplanned growth includes informal settlements and slums. Segregation: The separation of different groups within an urban area, often by socioeconomic or ethnic lines.

What are topography, urban form and urban fringe?

Topography: Physical features of the land that influence urban development, such as hills, plains, rivers, or swamps. Urban form: The physical layout and structure of a city, including size, shape, population density, and land use patterns. Urban fringe: The edge of the city where urban and rural land uses mix; may include retail parks, industry, or low-cost housing.

What are bid rent theory and the Burgess model?

Bid rent theory: A model that explains how land value and use change with distance from the CBD; competition for land is strongest at the centre. Burgess model: A concentric ring model showing urban land use zones from the CBD outward, developed from observations in Chicago.

What are cultural and heritage quarters and edge cities?

Cultural and heritage quarters: Planned areas focused on a city's historical or artistic identity to promote regeneration (e.g. Birmingham Jewellery Quarter). Edge cities: Self-contained urban centres located on the outskirts of main cities, featuring office, retail, and residential areas.

What are fortress developments and functional zones?

Fortress developments: Gated communities or commercial zones designed for security and exclusivity, often reinforcing social segregation. Functional zones: Parts of a city with distinct roles or land uses, such as industrial, residential, or commercial areas.

What are the Griffin and Ford model and the Hoyt sector model?

Griffin and Ford model: A Latin American urban model that includes zones of maturity and squatter settlements radiating from a central core. Hoyt sector model: A model suggesting cities develop in sectors along transport routes, rather than concentric rings.

What are land-use patterns and mixed-use development?

Land-use patterns: The spatial organisation of different functions across a city, often influenced by economic and physical factors. Mixed-use development: Urban planning combining residential, commercial, and leisure spaces to revitalise city centres.

What are the multi-nuclei model and new urban landscapes?

Multi-nuclei model: An urban model proposing multiple centres of activity in a city, rather than a single dominant CBD. New urban landscapes: Recent urban developments including mixed-use zones, edge cities, gentrified areas, and cultural quarters.

What are peak land value intersection and spatial sorting?

Peak land value intersection: The point in a city (usually in the CBD) where land values are highest due to maximum accessibility. Spatial sorting: The tendency for similar land uses and population groups to cluster together within urban areas.

Who are urban land managers?

Individuals or groups (e.g. planners, developers) responsible for shaping land use and development decisions.

What are architecture and cultural diversity in the post-modern city?

Architecture: Postmodern cities feature varied, often symbolic and fragmented building styles rather than uniformity. Cultural diversity: Increased variety in ethnicity, lifestyle, and culture, although often alongside widening inequalities.

What are decentralisation and the economy of consumption?

Decentralisation: Movement of people and functions from the city centre to edge cities or suburbs. Economy of consumption: A focus on service-based activities, leisure, and shopping in urban economies rather than production.

What are edge cities and fringe development?

Edge cities: Fringe urban areas functioning as independent centres with employment, retail, and housing (e.g. Croydon, UK). Fringe development: New development on the periphery of cities, often in the form of business parks or residential estates.

What are gentrification and the globalised economy?

Gentrification: Unplanned regeneration where affluent residents move into run-down inner-city areas, improving housing but often displacing original residents. Globalised economy: The influence of international finance and trade in shaping urban economies and identities.

What are high-tech corridors and messy structure?

High-tech corridors: Zones focused on research, technology, and innovation, typically on city outskirts. Messy structure: A postmodern urban feature where city form lacks clear zoning or hierarchy.

What are multiple centres and planning in the post-modern city?

Multiple centres: Postmodern cities have various hubs for different functions rather than one dominant core. Planning: Often involves public-private partnerships with diverse stakeholder input, focusing more on form than function.

What are postmodernism and service sector dominance?

Postmodernism: An approach to city development that embraces diversity, mixed styles, and less rigid planning rules (e.g. the Gherkin in London). Service sector dominance: Tertiary and quaternary sectors are central to postmodern urban economies.

What are social polarisation and symbolic architecture?

Social polarisation: The increasing divide between wealthy and disadvantaged groups within urban areas. Symbolic architecture: Iconic buildings designed to represent culture or status, contributing to a city's identity (e.g. Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao).

What are cultural diversity and economic inequality?

Cultural diversity: The presence of multiple ethnic, linguistic, or cultural groups within a city or country. Economic inequality: Unequal distribution of wealth and income, often more severe in less developed economies lacking adequate welfare support.

What are economic migrants and ghettos?

Economic migrants: Individuals who move to a new area or country primarily for employment; may fill labour shortages but also face discrimination. Ghettos: Areas where segregation is extreme, often occupied by minority groups with limited access to services and opportunities.

What are health inequality and housing inequality?

Health inequality: Uneven access to healthcare or health outcomes, often linked to income disparity or poor urban living conditions. Housing inequality: Disparities in housing quality and ownership, with poorer residents often in rented, cramped, or substandard housing.

What are multiculturalism and owner-occupier?

Multiculturalism: The coexistence of different cultures within one society; can be enriching but may also lead to social tensions. Owner-occupier: A person who owns and lives in their property; more common among higher-income groups, influencing social mobility.

What are segregation and social class?

Segregation: The physical or social separation of different groups in urban areas, which may be voluntary or enforced by economic pressures. Social class: A grouping of people based on income, education, and occupation; strongly affects access to urban services and opportunities.

What are social inequality and social sorting?

Social inequality: Differences in wealth, education, healthcare, and access to services across social groups within cities. Social sorting: The way people are distributed across urban spaces according to income, ethnicity, religion, or occupation.

What is substandard housing?

Poor-quality accommodation often inhabited by low-income populations in high-density urban areas.

What are affordable housing and arts and culture initiatives?

Affordable housing: Housing priced within reach of low-income groups; used in new developments to reduce urban division. Arts and culture initiatives: Shared community events that promote interaction and understanding among diverse groups.

What are community support schemes and cultural integration?

Community support schemes: Projects aimed at reducing racial tension and encouraging integration through collaborative efforts. Cultural integration: The process of combining and accepting diverse cultures within a society, leading to shared identity and tolerance.

What are discrimination laws and employment mentoring?

Discrimination laws: Legislation that prevents unequal treatment based on race, gender, or religion in the workplace or wider society. Employment mentoring: Programmes run by businesses to help immigrants adapt to new environments, improve job access, and integrate socially.

What are English language support and government engagement?

English language support: Classes and resources provided to non-native speakers to improve communication and workplace integration. Government engagement: Initiatives such as encouraging minority participation in political decision-making (e.g. voting outreach).

What are infrastructure investment and living wage?

Infrastructure investment: Public and private funding to improve roads, water, sanitation, and housing, especially in informal settlements. Living wage: A minimum income standard designed to meet basic living costs, helping reduce urban poverty.

What are minimum wage and self-help housing?

Minimum wage: A government-mandated lowest hourly pay rate, aiming to reduce wage disparities in urban areas. Self-help housing: Government schemes in LDEs where families are supported with materials and utilities to construct their own homes.

What is urban regeneration in the context of inequalities?

Revitalisation of degraded urban areas, often incorporating mixed housing and public services to reduce segregation.

What are albedo and evapotranspiration?

Albedo: The reflectivity of a surface. Urban surfaces like tarmac have low albedo, meaning they absorb more heat. Evapotranspiration: The combined process of water evaporation and plant transpiration; reduced in cities due to fewer green spaces.

What are a microclimate dome and a pollution dome?

Microclimate dome: A localised climate zone formed by urban buildings and human activities that differs from surrounding areas. Pollution dome: A layer of polluted air trapped over a city, which can enhance warming and reduce air quality

What are temperature range (diurnal) and the urban boundary layer?

Temperature range (diurnal): Cities typically show larger differences in temperature between day and night compared to rural areas. Urban boundary layer: The layer of atmosphere above roof height influenced by the city as a whole.

What are the urban canopy layer and urban microclimate?

Urban canopy layer: The layer of air below roof height, directly affected by buildings, streets, and trees. Urban microclimate: The climate experienced in a small urban area, influenced by built form, surfaces, and human activity.

What are wind patterns in urban areas?

Altered by urban structures; buildings can slow down, channel, or increase turbulence in wind flow.

What are cloud cover and fog in urban areas?

Cloud cover: Often greater over cities due to pollution particles promoting cloud formation. Fog: More common in urban areas due to increased condensation nuclei from pollution.

What are photochemical smog and precipitation in urban areas?

Photochemical smog: A form of air pollution caused by sunlight reacting with vehicle and industrial emissions. Precipitation: Urban areas can receive more rainfall than rural areas due to enhanced uplift and air pollution.

What are relative humidity and temperature cliffs?

Relative humidity: Often lower in cities because of higher temperatures and reduced vegetation. Temperature cliffs: Sudden changes in temperature across short distances, often between green areas and urban buildings.

What are temperature peak and temperature plateau?

Temperature peak: The hottest part of a city, usually in the most densely built or industrial zones. Temperature plateau: A uniformly warm zone often found in the commercial or residential areas of cities.

What are temperature sink and thunderstorms?

Temperature sink: Cooler urban zones such as parks and rivers where vegetation or water absorbs heat. Thunderstorms: Increased frequency in cities due to heat and rising air promoting storm development.

What are the urban heat island (UHI) and urban wind?

Urban heat island (UHI): The phenomenon of urban areas being warmer than surrounding rural areas, especially at night. Urban wind: Cities typically have lower average wind speeds due to obstruction from buildings, although local gusts can be stronger in narrow streets.

What are air purification towers and alternative fuels?

Air purification towers: Structures that filter and clean polluted urban air (e.g. Smog Free Tower). Alternative fuels: Cleaner fuels like electricity, hydrogen, or LPG used to reduce vehicle emissions.

What are car sharing/pooling and catalytic converters?

Car sharing/pooling: Reduces traffic and emissions by promoting shared vehicle use. Catalytic converters: Fitted to vehicles to reduce harmful emissions from exhaust gases.

What are congestion charge and filters?

Congestion charge: A fee for driving in certain urban areas to reduce traffic and lower emissions. Filters: Devices installed in factory chimneys to remove pollutants from emissions before release.

What are green infrastructure and hydrogen fuel additives?

Green infrastructure: Urban design features like green roofs, walls, and gardens that help reduce heat and purify air. Hydrogen fuel additives: Technologies that make combustion more efficient and reduce vehicle emissions.

What are Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) and legislation?

Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC): A UK system requiring businesses to manage pollution through regulation and permits. Legislation: Laws like the Clean Air Acts that limit air pollution and require emissions monitoring.

What are park and ride and pedestrianisation?

Park and ride: Facilities allowing commuters to park outside cities and use public transport to reduce urban congestion. Pedestrianisation: Restricting vehicles from certain streets to reduce air pollution and make areas more people-friendly.

What are photo-catalytic materials and selective bans?

Photo-catalytic materials: Surfaces that break down air pollutants using sunlight, such as those coated in titanium dioxide. Selective bans: Traffic control measures that temporarily restrict vehicles based on criteria (e.g. licence plate numbers).

What are smog and Tiocem?

Smog: A mix of smoke and fog intensified by pollutants and temperature inversions, harmful to health and visibility. Tiocem: A special type of concrete with self-cleaning and pollutant-reducing properties under UV light.

What are vehicle restrictions?

Policies that limit the use of certain vehicles in city areas to reduce pollution levels.

What are condensation nuclei and evapotranspiration (EVT)?

Condensation nuclei: Small particles like dust and pollutants in urban air that promote condensation, increasing precipitation. Evapotranspiration (EVT): The combined process of water evaporating from surfaces and transpiring from plants; reduced in urban areas due to less vegetation.

What are impermeable surfaces and overland flow?

Impermeable surfaces: Roads, pavements, and buildings that prevent infiltration and increase surface runoff. Overland flow (surface runoff): Water that flows over the ground surface, dominant in cities due to impermeable surfaces.

What are a pollution dome and thunderstorms in urban precipitation?

Pollution dome: A layer of polluted air over a city that traps heat and moisture, enhancing rainfall and thunderstorms. Thunderstorms: More frequent in urban areas due to higher temperatures and uplift from built structures.

What are the urban heat island and an urban hydrograph?

Urban heat island: A phenomenon where urban areas are warmer than surrounding rural areas, contributing to increased rainfall. Urban hydrograph: A "flashy" hydrograph with short lag time, steep rising limb, and high peak discharge, caused by rapid runoff and low infiltration.

What is the urban water cycle?

Modified by urbanisation, with reduced infiltration and storage, and increased runoff, transfers, and artificial inputs and outputs.

What are catchment management and channelisation?

Catchment management: A holistic approach to managing the entire river basin to reduce flooding, drought, and pollution while improving ecosystems. Channelisation: The engineering of rivers with straight channels and artificial linings (e.g. concrete) to speed up flow and reduce flood risk.

What are floodplain zoning and hard engineering?

Floodplain zoning: Restricting development in flood-prone areas to reduce flood damage and maintain natural floodplains. Hard engineering: Physical constructions like levees, dams, and concrete embankments to control water flow and reduce flooding.

What are levees and river straightening?

Levees: Raised embankments (natural or artificial) used to increase river channel capacity and prevent overflow. River straightening: Altering a river's natural course to improve flow rate and reduce meandering; may increase erosion downstream.

What are soft engineering and SuDS?

Soft engineering: Using natural processes and materials (e.g. afforestation, wetland restoration) to manage water sustainably. SuDS (Sustainable Drainage Systems): Drainage methods that mimic natural processes to manage rainfall and improve water quality.

What are swales and green roofs?

Swales: Shallow, vegetated channels used in SuDS to slow runoff and provide recreational green space. Green roofs: Vegetated rooftop systems that increase evapotranspiration and reduce runoff.

What are infiltration basins and rain gardens?

Infiltration basins: Depressions that allow water to soak into the ground, reducing surface runoff. Rain gardens: Shallow planted areas that slow and filter stormwater while creating green space.

What are retention ponds and permeable surfaces?

Retention ponds: Permanent water bodies designed to store excess stormwater and improve water quality. Permeable surfaces: Surfaces that allow water to pass through, reducing runoff and filtering pollutants.

What are conservation and dam removal?

Conservation: Protecting and preserving natural environments, including river systems, to support biodiversity and ecosystem function. Dam removal: Part of river restoration aimed at restoring natural flow, reducing evaporation, and improving aquatic connectivity.

What are meander reintroduction and natural wetlands?

Meander reintroduction: Recreating natural bends in rivers to slow water flow and reduce erosion. Natural wetlands: Reinstated floodplains and marshlands that store water and reduce flood risk while supporting wildlife.

What are partial restoration and restoration?

Partial restoration: Restoring some aspects of a river's natural function and form where full restoration is not possible due to urban constraints. Restoration: Returning a river or landscape to its original, natural state by removing previous human modifications.

What is stakeholder conflict?

Tensions between different groups, such as farmers and conservationists, regarding land use and river management.

What are commercial waste and construction waste?

Commercial waste: Waste produced by businesses such as offices, restaurants, and shops, including food waste, paper, plastics, and hazardous materials. Construction waste: Material discarded from building, demolition, and renovation sites, including concrete, bricks, wood, and asbestos.

What are domestic waste and the global waste trade?

Domestic waste: Household waste such as food, plastics, paper, garden waste, and electrical goods. Global waste trade: The international export of waste, often from HDEs to LDEs or EMEs, for processing or disposal.

What are illegal dumping and industrial waste?

Illegal dumping: The unauthorised disposal of waste, especially common in LDEs, leading to pollution and health hazards. Industrial waste: By-products of manufacturing and power generation, including packaging, hazardous waste, and ash.

What are institutional waste and leachate?

Institutional waste: Waste from facilities like hospitals, schools, and government buildings, often including paper, food, and non-medical waste. Leachate: Liquid that drains from landfill, potentially polluting soil and water unless properly managed.

What are lifestyle factors and municipal solid waste (MSW)?

Lifestyle factors: Habits such as processed food consumption or reliance on disposable products, which increase the complexity and quantity of waste. Municipal solid waste (MSW): Waste collected by local authorities, typically from households, institutions, and public spaces.

What are open dumping and recycling rates?

Open dumping: A waste disposal method used in many LDEs where waste is burned or left exposed, causing pollution and health issues. Recycling rates: The proportion of waste that is recycled; varies widely between countries and depends on infrastructure and public behaviour.

What are sources of waste and throw-away culture?

Sources of waste: Different sectors that generate waste: domestic, industrial, commercial, institutional, municipal, and construction. Throw-away culture: A consumer mindset that leads to the frequent disposal of items such as clothing or electronics after minimal use.

What are waste per capita and waste streams?

Waste per capita: A measure of how much waste is produced by each person in a country; often highest in HDEs. Waste streams: Flows of waste from origin to disposal or recycling; divided into material-based (e.g. paper, metals) and product-based (e.g. electronics, batteries).

What are the 3Rs and energy recovery?

3Rs (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle): A waste hierarchy promoting reduced consumption, reuse of items, and recycling to limit landfill and resource use. Energy recovery: The process of generating energy through incinerating waste, converting heat into electricity or steam.

What are foraging and freeganism?

Foraging: Collecting unused or discarded food from public spaces as a way to reduce waste. Freeganism: A lifestyle choice involving reclaiming and eating discarded food to reduce environmental impact and consumerism.

What are greenhouse gas reduction and incineration?

Greenhouse gas reduction: An environmental benefit of recycling and energy recovery, which reduce the need for raw material extraction and fossil fuels. Incineration: The burning of waste at high temperatures, sometimes with energy recovery; reduces landfill volume but can produce toxic ash and emissions.

What are landfill and leachate ponds?

Landfill: The disposal of waste by burial; modern sites are lined and managed, but still pose environmental concerns such as methane release. Leachate ponds: Facilities used to collect and treat contaminated liquid runoff from landfill sites.

What are recovery and recycling?

Recovery: Reprocessing waste into new products or materials (e.g. crushed concrete used as road base). Recycling: Converting waste materials into new products; reduces environmental impact but requires infrastructure and energy.