Biogeog, Lomolino 2020

What fundamentally influenced the evolution of Earth’s life forms?

Geological evolution of Earth, especially tectonics

What is island biogeography?

The idea that larger islands have greater biodiversity and isolated islands have fewer species but more unique forms

Who developed the concept of Naturgemälde?

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What is Naturgemälde?

A holistic view of nature as interconnected phenomena understood through synergy

What did William Smith contribute to geology and biogeography?

He mapped rock strata across Great Britain and studied associated fossils

What evidence supported placing natural phenomena in geographic context?

Fossils and rock strata patterns across geographic regions

Who produced the zoogeographic map and viewed regions as distinct evolutionary arenas?

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What is Wallace’s Taxon Cycle Theory?

A sequence of ecological, evolutionary, and biogeographic changes from island colonization to replacement

What is Buffon’s Law?

Patterns in biodiversity are products of evolution, dispersal, and extinction

Why are biogeographic systems complex according to Buffon’s Law?

Because ecological interactions like competition and predation affect evolution, dispersal, and survival

Why are manipulation experiments difficult in biogeography?

They are often impractical, impossible, or immoral

What approach is commonly used in biogeography instead of manipulation experiments?

Natural experiments and comparative approaches

What is macroecology?

The study of broad-scale ecological patterns and processes

What is the geographic template?

Global spatial patterns of environmental conditions

What underlies all biogeographic patterns?

Responses of species and biotas to geographic environmental patterns

What are the two components of non-random environmental variation?

Spatial autocorrelation and environmental-geographic gradients

What is spatial autocorrelation?

The tendency for nearby locations to have similar environmental conditions

What causes environmental variation on Earth?

Solar radiation, Earth’s internal heat, and gravity

What distinguishes terrestrial biomes?

Principal vegetation types

How does latitude influence biomes?

It changes solar radiation, temperature, precipitation, and wind patterns

Why do tropical rainforests receive heavy rainfall?

Rising warm air cools and condenses moisture, causing intense precipitation

Why are tropical rainforests highly productive?

High precipitation and intense solar radiation

How do Hadley cells contribute to deserts?

Descending dry air heats up and retains moisture, creating arid conditions around 30° latitude

What is a rainshadow desert?

A desert formed on the leeward side of mountains after moisture is lost on the windward side

Why are coastal climates thermally buffered?

Oceans have high heat capacity and vary less in temperature

Why do continental interiors have greater seasonality?

Land heats and cools more rapidly than oceans

Why are mountains considered microcosms of biomes?

Elevation changes mimic latitudinal climate patterns

What drives marine geographic patterns?

Solar radiation and thermohaline circulation

What factors characterize marine biomes?

Water temperature and chemistry

What are seamounts?

Submerged volcanic mountains that may form islands if they rise above sea level

How were the Hawaiian Islands formed?

Over mantle plume hotspots creating a chain of volcanoes

What caused the bend in the Hawaiian island chain?

Movement of the Pacific Plate over mantle hotspots

What formed the Galápagos Islands?

A hotspot at the junction of the Nazca, Cocos, and Pacific Plates

What is Africa’s Great Rift Valley?

An emergent tectonic rift system containing Africa’s Great Lakes

How did continental placement affect ancient climate?

Tropical continents absorbed more heat, increasing global temperatures

What contributed to the Phanerozoic Eon warming?

Volcanic CO2 and methane release plus tectonic activity

How do tectonics influence climate?

By altering ocean and atmospheric circulation patterns

What was the Tethyan Seaway?

A circum-equatorial current formed between Laurasia and Gondwana

What are Milankovitch cycles?

Changes in Earth’s orbit, tilt, and precession affecting climate cycles

What is obliquity?

The angle of Earth’s rotational tilt

How long did glacial periods usually last during the Pleistocene?

Around 100,000 years

How long did interglacial periods usually last?

Around 10,000 years

What caused rapid transitions between glacial and interglacial periods?

Positive feedback loops such as the albedo effect

How did climate change affect Pleistocene species ranges?

Species shifted ranges up to 10° latitude or 1,000 m elevation

Why did some Pleistocene species go extinct?

Some, especially plants, could not migrate quickly enough

What caused Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions according to the notes?

Humans

What was Beringia?

A glacial-age land bridge between Asia and North America

What is adaptive radiation?

The diversification of one ancestral species into many forms

Which birds are classic examples of adaptive radiation?

Galápagos finches and Hawaiian honeycreepers

How many finch species did Darwin identify in the Galápagos?

14 species

What drove diversification of Hawaiian honeycreepers?

Coevolution with Hawaiian lobeliads and niche specialization

What factors influence adaptive radiation on islands?

Isolation, area, elevation, island age, and lineage age

Why is isolation important for adaptive radiation?

It prevents gene flow

What is the adaptive zone concept?

Islands must be isolated enough to reduce competitors but reachable by some colonists

Why do larger islands promote diversification?

They contain more habitats and ecological niches

What is autocatalytic diversification?

Diversification driven by interactions among species themselves

What is ecological displacement?

Species evolving different traits to reduce competition

How can coevolution accelerate evolution?

Mutual adaptations between interacting species speed diversification

Why is Madagascar highly diverse and endemic?

Long isolation, varied topography, and many isolated habitats

What is temporal isolation?

Long-term geographic separation over time

What is functional isolation?

Isolation determined by species’ dispersal abilities

Which Malagasy animals show the highest endemicity?

Amphibians and reptiles

Why do carnivores radiate less than lemurs in Madagascar?

They have higher energy demands, larger home ranges, and slower reproduction

What is philopatry?

Returning to a natal site to reproduce

What characteristics of cichlids promote diversification?

Habitat specificity and philopatry

What is ecological naivety?

Lack of awareness of predators due to isolation

Why are tropical adaptive radiations often larger?

Higher productivity and climatic stability allow greater specialization

What is spatial telescoping?

A trend toward reduced dispersal ability during adaptive radiation

What are chorological maps?

Dynamic maps showing geographic and evolutionary change over time

What was Buffon’s Northern Origin Theory?

The idea that species originated in the Arctic and moved southward

What is phylogeography?

The study of geographic patterns of evolutionary history

What is a cladogram?

A branching diagram showing evolutionary relationships

What are geophylogenies?

Geographically explicit evolutionary reconstructions using GIS and mapping

What are plesiomorphic traits?

Ancient ancestral traits

What are apomorphic traits?

Newly evolved traits

What are synapomorphies?

Shared derived traits indicating close evolutionary relationships

What are area-cladograms?

Cladograms incorporating tectonic and phylogenetic splits

What is the progression rule?

Species colonize islands sequentially as islands form

What is vicariance?

The splitting of populations by geographic barriers

What are biogeographic regions defined by?

Evolutionary history and distinct species assemblages

What is biodiversity?

The variation in all forms and levels of life

What is biophilia?

Humans’ innate attraction to nature and biodiversity

What are the two major measures of biodiversity?

Species richness and endemicity

What is species richness?

The number of species in a given area

What is endemicity?

The occurrence of species found nowhere else

Where is species richness highest globally?

In the tropics

Why is tropical biodiversity so high?

Intense solar radiation, climatic stability, larger area, and older ecosystems

Why do mid-elevations often have highest biodiversity?

Environmental conditions and habitat diversity are optimal at intermediate elevations

What is the species-area relationship?

Species richness increases with island area

What is the species-isolation relationship?

Species richness decreases with increasing isolation

What is the equilibrium theory of island biogeography?

Island biodiversity reflects a balance between immigration and extinction

Why are extinction rates lower on larger islands?

They contain more resources and habitats

What are the four island equilibria proposed later?

Non-interactive, interactive, assortive, and evolutionary

What is the small island effect?

Very small islands show little relationship between area and species richness

What is the general dynamic theory of island biogeography?

A theory incorporating island geological life cycles into biodiversity patterns

Where are biodiversity hotspots concentrated?

In tropical, isolated, topographically complex regions

What is macroecology?

The study of large-scale ecological patterns

What are constraint lines in macroecology?

Relationships between traits at different organizational levels

What is areography?

The study of geographic range structure and shape

What is Bergmann’s Rule?

Body size increases from warm to cold climates