2.1

Bottom-Up Processing

Definition: Understanding something by analyzing its basic features first.

Example: Seeing a letter on a page and building it into a word.

Top-Down Processing

Definition: Using prior knowledge to interpret information.

Example: Reading messy handwriting because you know the context of the sentence.

Context

Definition: The surrounding information that helps interpret a situation.

Example: Knowing someone’s tone helps understand their words (e.g., sarcasm).

Gestalt Principles: Closure

Closure: Your brain fills in gaps to see a complete image.

Example: Seeing a circle in a dotted outline.

Gestalt : Figure - Ground

Figure-Ground: Distinguishing a figure from its background.

Example: Focusing on a person in a crowd.

Gestalt : Proximity

Proximity: Objects close together are grouped.

Example: Rows of dots seem like lines.

Gestalt: Siminlarity

Similarity: Similar objects are grouped together.

Example: Team uniforms help group players.

Schemas

Definition: Mental frameworks for understanding and interpreting information.

Example: A child’s schema for "dog" includes four legs and fur.

Attention

Definition: Focusing on certain stimuli while ignoring others.

Example: Concentrating on a lecture despite background noise.

Selective attention

Definition: Focusing on one thing while ignoring everything else.

Example: Watching TV and not hearing someone calling you.

Perceptual Set

Definition: Expectations shape how we perceive things.

Example: If you expect a friendly face, you’re more likely to see one in a blurred photo.

Cocktail Party Effect

Definition: Focusing on one voice in a noisy environment but still noticing your name if it’s mentioned.

Example: Hearing your name at a loud party.

Change Blindness

Definition: Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Example: Not realizing a person’s shirt color changed in a movie scene.

Inattentional Blindness

Definition: Failing to notice something obvious because attention is elsewhere.

Example: Missing a dancing gorilla in a video while counting basketball passes.

Habituation

Definition: Your brain stops paying attention to a repeated stimulus

Example: Tuning out the sound of a fan over time.

Sesnory adaptation

Definition: Reduced sensitivity due to constant stimulation.

Example: No longer noticing a strong perfume after a while.

Visual Cliff

Definition: Experiment showing infants perceive depth.

Example: Babies hesitant to crawl over a glass "cliff."

Binocular Depth Cues: Retinal Disparity

Definition: Eyes see slightly different images; brain merges them for depth.

Example: Closing one eye and seeing objects “shift.”

Binocular Depth Cues: Convergence

Definition: Eyes angle inward as objects get closer.

Example: Cross-eyed when focusing on your finger close to your nose.

Monoculor Depth cues : Relative Clarity

Definition: Clearer objects seem closer; hazy ones are farther.

Example: A sharp tree in the foreground, blurry mountains in the background.

Monocular Depth Cues : Relative size

Definition: Smaller objects appear farther away.

Example: Distant people looking tiny in a photo

Monocular Depth Cues: texture gradient

Definition: Details blur as distance increases.

Example: Bricks on a road seem smooth farther away.

Monocular Depth Cues: Linear perspective

Definition: Parallel lines appear to meet in the distance.

Example: Train tracks converging at the horizon.

Monocular depth cues: Interposition

Definition: Closer objects block those behind them.

Example: A tree blocking part of a house in view.

Perceptual organization: Perceptual Constancy

Recognizing objects as unchanging despite changes in view.

Perceptual Constancy: Size

Size Constancy: A car far away still seems big.

Perceptual Constancy: Color

Color Constancy: A red apple in shadow still looks red.

Perceptions of hues

Perceptual Constancy: Shape

Shape Constancy: A door looks rectangular when open or closed.

Perceptual Constancy: Light

Lightness Constancy: A white shirt appears white in bright or dim light.
(white, black, grey)

Apparent Motion:

when something looks like its moving, but it really isnt (flip books or animated movies)

Apparent motion : Stroboscopic

Stroboscopic Motion: Rapidly shown images appear as movement (flipbooks).

Apparent motion : Phi

Phi Phenomenon: Lights flashing in sequence look like they’re moving (chasing Christmas lights).