401 exam 4 -not cumulative-

in what ways do men and women differ? 4 ways

men enter puberty later - 2 yrs later on average - , men die sonner-about 5 yrs sooner on average-, women are twice as vulnerable to anxiety disorders and depression, and women are only 1/3 as vulnerable to suicide and 1/5 as vulnerable to alcoholism

our society expects different things of men and women and treat them differently - jobs -

38% of all physicians are female, 72% physician’s assistans, 87% nurses, 49% college teachers, 89% elementary school teachers, 38% dentists, 93% dental hygienists

women earn as little as 82 cents for every dollar that men do

this difference is greater for older women 35+ and less for younger 25-34, this gender gap remains even when we stat control for a wide variety of other variables

women are under-represented in leadership positions

only 30% of seats on corporate boards and they run as CEO only about 10% of the top 500 companies, women represent 28.2% of current voting membershio of the us confress 151 out of 535

alice eagly noted that there are somee large important differences btwn genders, women are

less aggressive, more nurturing, more sensitive

women give more priority to relationships than do men, even from a very early age boys strive for

independence and girls play together have more intimate discussions, and exhibit greater interdependence, men are more task-oriented and women more relationship-oriented

in convo men give information,

prescribe solutions and women share lives, show support, offerhelp

women dramatically outnumber men in such helping-related professions as social worker,

teacher, nurse, men say helping others if 5/10 importance, and women 7/10, women are more empathetic, more likely to cry at another’s distress, smile more, read other people’s emotions better, now stereotypes reinforce

social dominance - picture someone you think of adventurous vs, affectionate

worldwide men are rated as more dominant, driven, aggressive, men represent about 92% of the heads of nations, 77% cabinet ministers, us history over 90% congress has been men, currently women represent 28% of us congress which is the highest percentage in us history

babies video

boys encouraged to be active and girls more talked to, called pretty, offered different toys to different gendera

aggression

ratio of men-to-women committing murder is 7.5 to 1 in US and 3-1 in Canada, higher murder rate overall the bigger the ratio of men to women committing murders, murder is ½ nurture and ½ nature, testosteronet

testosterone does influence aggression

when administered it heightens aggressiveness, violent male criminals have higher levels than normal (and so do NFL players and rambunctious frat members), but social context affects testosterone levels, can be both cause/effect, winning - increase and testosterone

sex

refers to bio features that distinguish men and women

gender

refers to the behaviors that are considered appropriate for men and women

gender is largely constructed in the sense that people around the world start with something real (sex)

and project their own attitudes, beliefs, norms, stereotypes, and values to create gender

bio-based differences are generally exaggerate

people see larger difference between men and women than can be identified by rigorious psych testing, tested thousands of elementary school children in taiwan, japan, and us - found very small gender differences - girls slighlty better in reading and boys were slightly better in math but mothers in all 3 cultures believerd that the differences were actually quite large

women are the ones who bear children and should therefore not be put at risk during pregnancy and childrearing

a groups can lose most of its men and still reproduce at an acceptable rate, but it cannot do so if it loses most of its women

in early times at least women had to be available to nurse infant children

this constrained women’s mobility so it made sense for her to stay at home-division of labor-, this led women to assume other child-care responsibilities and home-making duties

men therefore must do the dangerous activites fishing to the open seas, hunting, cultures develop to glorify these tasks we make

the men heroes to get them to do the dangerous work, thus men get higher status - the status differentiation of activities leads to status differentiation of genders - in an information society like the us dangeroius activites are less necessary for survival, as a result the more modern a society the less difference there is in the stereotypes that ppl have of men and women

there is causal relationship btwn sex roles (division of labor btwn the sexes) and gender stereotypes

once we found it useful (if not essential) for men and women to assume different roles, it is reassuring to believe that each sex has the psychological characteristics necessary to successfully perform their assigned role -females have the job of raising children, so then they are assumed to be more affectionate, caring, patient, sympathetic, males have the jobs of hunters and warrirors, so then they are assumed to be more aggressive, adventurous, self-confident, tough, courageous

in short, gender stereotypes are rationalizations for the sexual division of labor

ironically, the reasons for this division of labor have ceased to exist in many societies, nevertheless, they still maintain the traditional males and females roles, gender stereotypes - help to reinforce and maintain this arrangement-as does our general inertia and conservatism in social structures - , similar rationalizations have been proposed for other stereotypes-blacks were stereotyped as lazy and unintelligent in order to justify the institution of slavery-

the sexual division of labor does vary across cultures, and this affects the relationships between men and women

schlegel and barry note that there is variability in the degree to which women contribute to subsistence or food-getting activities -in cultures that forage or gather food, women’s participation is usually high, this often leads to less gender inequality or social stratification, with little surplus, men cannot be viewed as wealthy, powerful, better positive relationships between men and women

high female contributions to subsistence are associated with

higher valuation of females, more permissiveness with respect to premarital sexuality, lower probability of rape, lack of power dynamic, stereotypes rationalize division of labor

cultures around the world have widely different views on whether roles, obligations, and rights of men and women should be different

high on gender egalitarianism are countries like finland and germany, and low on gender eqalitarianism are countries like pakistan and nigeria, males and females in a given culture share similar gender attitudes, men and women more similar in a country than compared to men/women from other countries

male generally have more traditional gender views than females

some predictors of higher gender egalitarianism include: greater individualism and urbanization, note that these are correlations not causes of gender egalitarianism

common stereotypes for women in the western countries of us, ireland, and england

affectionate, gentle, high-strung, mild, nagging, weak, talkative, whiny, warm, etc

stereotypes make it difficult to see outside the paradigm defined by these beliefs - some stereotypes of women appear to exist cross-culturally

in 25 countries surveyed women were consistently thought to be submissive, sentimental, and superstitious, also these authors found that adjectives stereotypicially applied to women - affectionate, excitable, etc - these qualities were seen as more passive and weak compared to the evaluations of male-based stereotypes

3 stereotype subtypes for women

career woman, sex object, and housewife

men are stereotyped as having more agentic traits

characteristics associated with self-assertion, control, and independence, these are often linked with dominance and leadership

women are stereotyped as having more communal traits

characteristics associated with cooperation, nurturing, interdependence, these are often linked with caring and supportive behaviors

2 main theories of sexism

social role theory and ambivalent sexism

social role theory

through a combo of bio and social factors a division of labor between the sexes has emerged over time, since ppl behave in ways that fit the roles they play, men are more likely to wield physical, social, and economic power, these behavioral differences provide a continuing basis for social perception, leading us to percieve men as dominate “by nature” and women as domestic “by nature” when in fact the differences reflect the roles they play

3 key points of social role theory

correspondence bias, gender stereotypes, role constrained behavior

correspondence bias

the assumption that people’s behavior “correspond to” or are due to inherent traits or abilities, men in leadership roles perceived as naturally assertive

gender stereotypes formed through

socialization, societal expectations, and the rationalization of different roles, children learning gender-appropriate behaviors, whether directly taught or indirectly seen

role constrained behavior

ppl are expected to behave in ways that are consistent with their roles, leads to prejudice against ppl who choose roles inconsistent with gender stereotypes, leads to prejudice against ppl who act in ways that are inconsistent with the stereotypes associated with the roles they occupy, in leadership role not supposed to cry

galinsky conducted a meta-analysis of a wide range of studies and found that when men and women occupy roles with similar levels of power, the

perceved difference in traits such as assertiveness and empathy diminish, in hort, mayn of the psychological and behavior differences between men and women can be attributed to differences in power rather than inherent trait differences, men and women same level of power perceived differences of traits btwn them go away doesnt mean we judge them the same, so probably more due to the roles they have not realy biological predisposition

there are two fundamental dimensions by which people universally judge others, depending on the content of our stereotypes of the

compentence and warmth of various groups, we iwll have different emotional and behavioral reactions to these groups, this is known as the stereotype content model of prejudice

stereotype content model

positive stereotypes high competence and high warmth - admiration, pride, negative stereotypes contempt, paternalistic high warmth, low conmpetence, pity - elderly, disabled ppl, some gender stereotypes, envious stereotypes - low warmth, high competence asian or jewish, 4 combos are associated with the different intergroup emotions - contempt, pity, envy, and admiration/pride

stereotype content model - prejudices seem to form coherent clusters

pity - elderly, disabled, admiration-irsih, american, middle class, envy-white, jew, asian, rich, contempt -welfare, feminists, turks

anthropolgoical research reveals that patriarchy -men’s structural control over political, legal, economic, and religious institutions is virtually universal among human socieites

male power and dominance is related to hostility twoard women, in part to justify women’s lower status and justify this exploitation, but dominant groups often develop “benevolent” ideaologies toward subordinate groups when there is long-term interaction and interdependence between the groups, treat them nicely to remain in control

in the book The Velvet Glove Jackman noted

groups who dominate social relationships strive to keep hostility out of those relationships, not in order to foster eqaulity, but rather to deepen and secure the inequality, the have learned that persuation is better than force, fosters a willing subordination

in JOhn Stuart Mill’s essay on the subjection of women wrote

all men except the most brutish desire to have in the women most nearly connected with them, not a forced slave but a willing one, not a slave merely but a favority, they have therefore put everything in practice to enslave their minds, the masters of all other slaves rely for maintaing obedience on fear-either fear of themselves or religious fears. the masters of women wanted more than simple obedience, and they turned the whole force of education to effect their purpose, idea of brainwashing

psychologists have recognized that there is an ambivalence in attitudes between men and women

in some respects we see each other as having certain positive traits, and in other respects we see each other as having certain negative traits, i will focus here on the views we have of women, as the are frewuently the group that is at a disadvantage in the relations between the sexes, still true

hostile sexism hs focuses on derogatory characteristizations

of women- weak, overly motional, manipulative, overly demanding

benevolent sexism bs is a form of sexism that appears superfically to be

a positve orientation to women - stereotype of women as chaste, pure, gentle, in need of protection and care

the strengths attributed to women constricts them to certain roles in society - nurtures,

care takers, sex objects, such stereotypes discourage women to acceptably engage in nontraditionally female behaviors - assertive, abrasive, disagreeable without risking social sanction

benevolent sexism as works effectively to disarm the protestations of women because it is veiled in the guise of kindess and respect

how can you say you are oppressed when you have been set so high on a pedestal, further, women and men who do not fit with societal expectations are often punished severely

modern chivalry attitudes seem to be positively associated with having

stereotypical view of women, seeing women as incompetent, virtuous, and weak, also associated w sexual conservativism, “chivalry is not indiscriminate politeness, rather it is shown only to women who are virtuous enough to receive it and who do not exceed expectations for female agency - those who act the way they are expected to act

men who behave in a chivalrous fashion toward women are perceived as “significantly more ambitious, assertive, respectable, kind-hearted, and physically attractive” than

non-chivalrous men, however, women who received help from such men were rated less independent, in the context of chivalry purportedly privileging women, how are these findings ironic?

ann e cuddy attempts to answer these questions

can a social structure be oppressive if the situation that is alleged to be op[ressive comes as the result of the voluntary, informed, rational choice of the allegedly oppressed? and why do oppressed ppl sometimes appear to join in their own oppression and reinforce it?

cuddy defines oppression as that special form of social treatment that privileges one group by disadvanttaging another

to claim that a group is oppressed entails that its members face decreased options and diminished futures vis-a-vis other members of society, and it implies that there is a serious social disorder

marilyn frye answers the question in the following manner -

men claim to be helpful to women by opening doors, paying for their meals, however this help is not really helpful and is offered whether needed or not, and where women would rather have help they have less offers and men are less likely to help

additionally, the gallant gestures have no practical meaning, their meaning is symbolic - treat women as if they are incapacitated, the symbolic message of the false helpfulness of male gallantry is female dependence, the invisile or insignficance of womens true needs and contempt for women

serena nanda - gender diversity cross-cultural variations exlpores gender identity cross culutrally

we do not always look at gender as a simple dichotomy of one of either male or female, in some cultures gender is more diverse, with recognized 3rd genders that we would call transgendered individuals who are neither just male or female, even in euro-american history there was a period where we recognized transvesite female saints - st jerome says - a woman who wishes to serve christ more than the world… will cease to be a woman and will be called a man - that person would then shave their head and dress as a man

brandon/tina - transgender individual - died in humboldt nebraska bc

shot to death then stabbed by JOhn Lotter and Marvin Thomas Nissen, december 31st 1993

we need to consider the kind of prejudice as well as

the obstacles or countervailing forces that make combatting prejudice difficult

interpersonal racism

holding negative attitudes toward members of different racial or ethinic groupss

structural racism

a set of policies, practices, and/or laws that have a disparate impact on members of particular racial or ethnic groups- these can be intentional and explicit or unintentional and more subtle, can be very long lasting effects

both interpersonal and structual racism are harmful to

the well being of minority groups and undermine meritocratic and demographic principles, legislation have outlawed forms of overt racial discrimination, the lingering role of structural forms of racism may go underappreciated

self-reports of prejudice among white americans has

steadily declined; black students should go to separate chools, right to segregate neighborhood, favor laws against intermarriage, and then homesellers can discriminate in sales -most to least declined

disparaity in incarceration rates graph

bias in policing choosing who to stop and drug crimes powder vs. crack, also judicial and prosecutor discretion - way great prison admision rate and imprissonmnet rate for african americans, imprisonmenet has long lasting effect on indiv and fam

when it comes to discrimination against black ppl in our country today what do you think is the bigger problem -

discrimination based on prejudice of individuals-interpersonal racism 75%, discrimination built into laws and instituions 25%, racial minorities see this as more 50-50, women more likely to recognize structual forms of gender discrimination, group membership is proxy for infividual experience and beliefs about world

1 factor that explains why white individuals are less able or willinging to acknowledge structural or institutional forms of racism - is that structural racism threatens whites’ self-image bc it

increases their awareness of white privilege a concept that threatens to discount white’s internal attributions for personal success,

why is the recognition of structural racism important 3 reasons

1-without a structural understanding of racism-whites may come to see racism simply as scattered acts of biogtry-may explain why many whites believe racim is no longer a serious problem and that racial minorities have the same opportunites as whites in the present day

2-focusing only on individual racism may prevetn whites from seeing the ways in which they benefit from racism and other forms of racial inequity aka white privelge which threatens white’s self image, denial of white privelge is strongest among white americans who are more highly identified with their racial ingroip

3- undermines support for policies designed to address systematic inequalities

environmental racism aka environmental justice

predominantly black neighborhoods in Houston Texas were home to all five city-owned landfills six of the city’s eight incinerators and ¾ privately owned landfills, form 1930s until 1978 -82% of all the solid waste disposed of in houston was dumped in black neighborhoodsm black residents were just 25% of the population

in chicago african american population by census predominatly in south side and west then the

blood lead levels in those areas

flint michigan water crisi began april 2014 when the city switched its drinking water source from lake huron to the flint river

the city’s water system was old and contained lots of lead pipes and the flint river water corroded the pipe causing lead to leach the water, around 100,000 ppl were exposed to elevated lead levels including children lead exposure can damage children’s brain and ns and can lead to learning behavior hearing and speech problems, at least 12 ppl diedm in october 2016 flint residents were advised not to drink the tap unless it had been filtered, the crisis highlighted the interplay btwn weak governmental policy environmental health infrastructure and lack of oversight, it also seen as an example of environmental injustice where poor ppl and ppl of color are disproprotionately exposed to toxic conditions, flint michigan is 57% black, 37% white, 4% latino, and 4% mixed race, this is not an isolated incident -similar issue happened to jackson ms in 2022

heat disparities - cities are warming

at twice the rate or rural areas and the global average,

redlining is the

practice of denying people access to credit bc of where they live even if they are personally qualified for loans, other involved drawing a redline on maps around neighberhood deemed too risky for invetment which were predominantly core urban neighborhoods and black populated neighborhoods, us federal government played a key role in insitutionalizing and encouraging redlining through the federal housing administration FHA-was the architect of federallly sponsored redlining from 1934 until the 1960s, though now illegal under laws like the fair housing act of 1963 its legacy continues to affect many communities

heat map directly corresponds with bad neighborhoods

hotpots are with redlined areas because not same parks and trees, more concrete, a grade areas above average and d hazardous are well above the average the heat

cleveland shows more home energy costs spent

heating and coling the home, the hidden and lingering costs of racism, shown in amibia tin box and mumbia clear diving line, and cape town again clear line, more marginalized will suffer more with climate change

systematic bias behind computer screen

computer programs and search engines are not neutral bc they operate on algorithms produced byhuman beings who themselves likely have biases, these algorithms can reinforce and amplify existing stereotypes prejudices and inequalities, what you search can also be problematic and reinforcing

google is an advertising company and it clients are paying google either directly or indirectly for placement on the first page

what it displays first matters in terms of what is most likely to get more views, google operates on algorithms designed to maximize it’s profits, not their fault necessarily but they are reinforcing stereotypes, google images searching doctors features mostly men and white, or nurses mostly women and white, as 2016, or unprofesional hairstyles were black hair and professional were white women 2016, concept of beautiful not including the word woman brings up white and woman

beatuy contect judged by ai and robots did not like dark skin

the winners were 44 most wre white, handful asain and 1 dark skin,

rekognition revels how amazon’s deep learning software used in many facial recognition algorithms had trouble discerning gender and skin tone especialyl

when it was a women or especially if a women with dark skin - misidentfying them as a man 31% of the time, women for men 19% , and no mistakes identifying men w light skin

the software flagged black defendeants 2x as likely to be misclassified as higher risk than their

white counterparts, black defendants treated the same despite different levels of crimes, more careful when examining white defendants

dylan roof shot and killed several at Mother Wmanual African Methodist Episcopal church in charleston sc on June 17, 2015

his white nationalist ideology was nurtured and fed by his internet searches into “black on white crime” which led to a variety of white supremacist web sites that fed him a variety of biased misinfo that fuled his outrage and led to his horrific hate crime

paradox of tolerance

a phiolosophical concept suggesting that if a society extends tolerance to those who are intolerant, it risks enabling teh evuntaul dominance of intolerance, thereby undermining the very principle of tolerance, this paradox was articulated by philosopher karl popper in the open society and its enemies -1945- where he argued that a truly tolerant society must retain teh right to deny tolerance to those who promote intolerance, popper posited that if intolerant ideologies are allowed unchecked expression they could exploint open society values to erode or destroy tolerance itself through authoritatian or oprresive practices, can’t have tolerance for those intolerant to talk in horrible ways, trying to balance tolerance today

in the absence of contact with others and info about others, we make assumptions - stereotyping and prejudice fill in the gaps, we often have little

motivation to be accurate and empathethic towards outgroup members,

contact hypothesis

increasing exposure to members of an outgroup can increase positive evaluations of the outgroup and decrease stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination

contact does not always work, wilner found that when white indivi had causal contact w black indivi only 33%

developed more positive attitudes, but among whites w more frequent contact that involved conversations w black indiv 75% devloped more positive

plant and devine vicious cycle that lack of contact produces

negative expectations and intergroup anxiety leads to hostility toward outgroup which leads to avoidance and lack of contact w outgroup thus continuing the cycle

5 conditions for success in intergroup contact

equal status btwn groups, common goals, intergroup cooperation, institutional support, and acquantance/friendship potential

equal status

groups must have within the contact situations, if status is unequal members of ingroup may derograte lower status outgroup. some societies are more committed to egalitarianism and correctiong social inequatites than others

cooperation toward common goals

groups must work cooperatively in pursuit of common goals, contact without cooperation does not affect attitudes toward outgroup members, cooperative contact in team sports leads to improved intergroup attitude, but indiv sports attidues are unrelated to amount of contact

indiv vs. team sports

equal on less than avg contact, aerage contact team sports have higher more positive attitude, and more than avg team sports are much more positive, while indiv have a slight decline in positive attitude

why doesn’t interracial contact within indivi sports reduce prejudice as well?

fewer black students athletes in indiv sports, direct competition w teammates in indiv sports may undermine white student athletes’ ability to perceive black teammates as being part of their ingroup, direct competition w black teammate during an athletic competition might promote negtive affect toward that teammate

acquitance potential

opportunity for members of interacting groups to get to know each other as indi, ideally acqutance leads to friendship, intergroup friendships are related to lower prejudice, quality of friendship more important than quantity - this is determined by the degree of self-disclosure which leads to deeper emotional connection w another person and the degree to which your lifes are intertwined

institutional support

authorities must establish expectations for lower prejudice and less discrimination -can create reward structures that reinforce positive intergroup relations, ppl can be encouraged to act in ways that are inconsistent w prejudiced values - creates dissonance and attitudes can change to match behaviors

effectiveness of intergrup contact - when necessary conditions are met, intergroup contact has moderate

effect on reducing prejudice, effect applies to many outgroups - may have greater effect on attitudes toward more stigmatized outgroups, more effective in situations that promote intergroup cooperation

there is a greater chance to reduce prejudice when all

contact helps/in optimal conditions, otherwise yes and no are equal

there is the greatest benefit to reducing prejudice for sexual orientation then

physical disability, race, mental dis, mentally ill and elderly equl

the change that increases

knowledge about outgroups empathy for them, interest in other cultures, motivation to control prejudice

the change that reduces

stereotyping, expectations that intergroup interaction will have negative outcomes, perceptions of intergroup threat, and intergroup anxiety

limiting factors- contact may not be effective for ppl who are

high in prejudice - may avoid contact w members of groups they dislike

high in intergorup anxiety - may lack confidence that they can have a positive relationship w outgroup members

positive contact is clearly more effective and

more common, when negative contact occurs it can be especially harmful, cooperative contact is most likely to reduce prejudice when the group is successful - failure can result in blaming the otugroup

positive-negative contact asymmetry

the effects of negative contact may be more powerful than the effects of positive contact

asymmetry may be stronger when

negative emotions are aroused like anger, and contact is brief and or one time

three forms of indirect contact

extended contact, media contact, and imagined contact

participants heard 2 other confederates make either negative, neutral, or postive judgments regarding gay ppl

participants then responded publicly or privately - favorable was the least, then no rating then unfavorable was most prejudiced