Psychology Chapter 3 and 4

Tennessee Tech University Introduction o Psychology

Biopsychology

Explores the biological mechanisms that underline behavior.

Biopsychology studies

• genetics

• the structure and function of the nervous system

• How the nervous system interacts with the endocrine system

Studying human genetics can

help researchers understand the biological basis underlying the different behaviors, thoughts, and reactions of humans.

Charles Darwin

Explored the concept of inheritance of traits throughout generations in his theory of evolution through natural selection.

Characteristics and behaviors that impact survival and reproduction

• those who help protect against predators

• those that increase access to food

• those that help reproduce the population

Genetic Variation

• the genetic difference between individuals

• contributes to a species’ adaptation to its environment

• begins when an egg(containing 23 chromosomes) is fertilized by a sperm (containing 23 chromosomes)

Chromosome

Long strand of genetic information known as DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs

Gene

sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics know as traits (eye color, hair color, etc)

Alleles

specific version of a gene

Genotype

the genetic makeup of an individual based on the genetic material (DNA) inherited from one’s parents

Phenotype

describes an individual’s observable characteristics, such as hair color, skin color, height, and build

Nature and nurture

work together like complex pieces of a human puzzle. The interaction of our environment and genes makes us the individuals we are

Range of reaction

asserts our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall

Genetic environmental correlation

view of gene-environment interaction that asserts our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes.

Epigenetics

study of gene-environment interactions such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes.

Neuron Structure

its semi-permeable membrane allows smaller molecules or molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it while stopping larger or highly charged molecules.

Synapse

the space between the terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron

Depolarization

membrane potential becomes less negative making the neuron more likely to fire (excitation)

Hyperpolarization

membrane potential becomes more negative making the neuron likely to fire (inhibition)

Threshold of excitation

level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become more active

action potential

an electrical signal

Neurotransmitter

chemical messenger of the nervous system

biological perspective

view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems.

Acetylcholine

muscles action and memory

beta-endorphin

pain and pleasure

dopamine

mood, sleep, and learning

norepinephrine

heart, intestines, and alertness

serotonin

mood and sleep

psychotropic medication

drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance

agonist

drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter

antagonist

drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter

Somatic nervous system

relays sensory and motor information to and from the CNS

Autonomic nervous system

controls our internal organs and glands and can be divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

sympathetic nervous system

involved in stress-related activities and functions; prepares us for fight or flight

Fight or flight response

activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run away to safety.

Parasympathetic nervous systems system

associated with routine, day-to-day operations of the body under relaxed conditions.
- Rest and restore response – relaxes the body after fight or flight (aka rest
and digest).

The brain

• Comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and glia.

• Bilateral (two-sided).

• Can be separated into distinct lobes but all areas interact with one another

The spinal cord

- Delivers messages to and from the brain.
- Has its own system of reflexes.
- The top merges with the brain stem and the bottom ends just below the ribs
- Functionally organized into 30 segments, each connected to a specific part of the body through the PNS.
- Sensory nerves bring messages in and up to the brain; motor nerves send messages out to the muscles and organs.
- In moments of survival, automatic reflexes allow motor commands to be initiated without sending signals from sensory nerves to the brain first, allowing for very quick reactions.

Lateralization

concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions

Left hemisphere

controls the right side of the body

right hemisphere

controls the left side of the body

Corpus callous

connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain

The brain is divided into three parts know as

the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain

The forebrain is

the largest part of the brain

The forebrain contains

- The cerebral cortex – higher level processes
- Thalamus - sensory relay
- Hypothalamus - homeostasis
- Pituitary gland – master gland of the endocrine system
- Limbic system – emotion and memory circuit

Cerebral cortex

surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental
capabilities such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language and
memory. It can be broken up into four lobes, each with a different function.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in executive functioning (planning, organization, judgment, attention, reasoning) motor control, emotion, and language

the frontal lobe contains

• the motor cortex

• the prefrontal cortex

• broca’s area

Motor cortex

strip or cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement

Prefrontal cortex

responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning

Broca’s area

region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production. damage can lead to difficulties in producing language

parental lobe

involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information

Somatosensory cortex

essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain

Temporal Lobe

associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language

The temporal lobe contains

• the auditory cortex

• wernicke’s area

Auditory cortex

strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information.

Wernicke’s area

important for speech comprehension

occipital Lobe

associated with visual processing

The occipital lobe contains

the primary visual cortex - interpreting incoming visual information

Thalamus

serves as the relay center of the brain where most senses (excluding smell) are routed before being directed to the other areas of the brain for processing

Limbic system

involved in mediating emotional response and memory

The most important structures in the limbic system are

• amygdala

• hippocampus

• hypothalamus

amygdala

involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories. involved in processing fear

hippocampus

structure associated with learning and memory (in particular spatial memory)

Hypothalamus

regulates homeostatic process including body temperature, appetite and blood pressure

The midbrain contains

• reticular formation

• substantia nigra

• ventral tegmental area (VTA)

Reticular formation

important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity

substantia nigra

where dopamine is produced; involved in control of movement

Ventral tegmental area (VTA)

where dopamine is produced; associated with mood, reward, and addiction

the hindbrain contains

• medulla

• pons

• cerebellum

Medulla

controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate

Pons

connects the brain and the spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep

cerebellum

controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory

What is the brain stem

the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

Techniques involving radiation

• CT scans

• PET scans

Techniques involving magnetic fields

• MRI

• FMRI

Techniques involving electrical activity

EEG

Computerized Tomography (CT) scan

involves x-rays and creates an image through x-rays passing through varied densities within the brain.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan

helpful for showing activity in different parts of the brain

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

magnetic fields used to produce a picture of the tissue being imaged

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI)

MRI that show changes in metabolic activity over time

Electroencephalography (EEG)

involves recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp

Endocrine system

a series of glands that produce hormones to regulate normal body functions

Pituitary gland

serves as the master gland, controlling the secretions of all other glands

Thyroid

secretes thyroxine which regulates growth, metabolism, and appetite

adrenal gland

secretes hormones involved in the stress response

gonad

secretes sex hormones, which are important for successful reproduction, and regulate sexual motivation and behavior

pancreas

secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar

Consciousness

awareness of internal and external stimuli such as feelings of hunger and pain or detection of light

wakefulness

high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior

a biological rhythm is an internal cycle of biological activity including

• fluctuation of body temperature

• an individuals menstrual cycle

• levels of alertness

circadian rhythm

biological rhythm that occurs over approximately 24 hours

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is

located in the hypothalamus and serves as the brains clock mechanism

Sleep regulation

the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world

Examples of disruptions of sleep

• jet lag

• rotating shift work

Examples of sleep deprivation

• sleep debt

• sleep rebound

sleep debt

result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis

sleep rebound

a sleep-deprived individual will tend to take a shorter time to fall asleep during subsequent opportunities for sleep

Sleep is associated with the secretion and regulation of many hormones including :

• melatonin

• follicle-stimulating hormone

• luteinizing hormone

• growth hormone