Marriage, Family Dynamics, and Developmental Influences

Marriage as an Institution

A valuable institution that must be preserved for social stability, legal/economic benefits, cultural/religious significance, emotional/psychological support, parental responsibility, and economic partnership.

Deinstitutionalization of Marriage

Changing norms including gender equality, high divorce rates, individualism, legal alternatives to marriage, acceptance of diverse relationships (e.g., cohabitation, same-sex marriage).

Cohabitation

Cohabitation often involves shared responsibilities like children (40%) and home ownership (33%).

Common Law Marriage

Common law marriages are recognized in some states without formal legal processes.

Covenant Marriage

A marriage with stricter requirements for entry and exit, emphasizing lifelong commitment. Recognized only in 3 states.

Same-Sex Marriage

Legalized nationwide in the U.S. since 2015.

Intercultural Marriages

Different models of cultural integration: Absorptive (assimilation), Blended (integration), Parallel (separation). Includes Consanguineal (family of origin) vs. Affinal (marital relationship) orientations.

Health and Marriage

Positive marital relationships linked to longevity and reduced health risks (e.g., lower rates of problem drinking, higher income in men). High-conflict relationships linked to negative health outcomes (e.g., cancer, depression, heart disease).

McEwan & Seeman (1999)

Four ways marital struggles cause health issues: repeated hits to the immune system, inability to adapt, failure to control physiological responses, and inadequate coping responses.

Psychophysiological Synchrony

The alignment of biological responses between individuals during social interactions, promoting bonding but potentially spreading stress.

Perceived vs Received Support

Perceived support is more strongly related to positive health outcomes than actual received support.

Spillover Hypothesis

Negative emotions from marital conflict spill over into parent-child relationships, affecting parenting quality and child well-being.

Emotional Security Theory

Parental conflict influences a child's sense of safety. Constructive conflict enhances emotional security, while destructive conflict threatens it.

Dyadic Coping (Bodenmann, 2005)

Positive coping strategies include protective buffering, active engagement, cognitive reframing, and delegated coping. Negative coping includes hostility and superficial responses.

Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

Criticism, Contempt, Defensiveness, Stonewalling. Most damaging: Contempt.

5:1 Ratio (Gottman)

Successful couples maintain a ratio of five positive interactions for every negative one during conflict.

Infidelity

Different types (romantic, financial) and influences (cultural, microsystem, genetics).

Attachment Theory

Early relationships with caregivers shape emotional bonds and mental health. Secure attachment supports resilience under stress.

Family Systems Theory (Bowen)

Families function as interconnected systems; changes in one part affect the whole.

Gene-Environment Correlations

Passive, evocative, and active correlations describe how genes and environments interact to influence development.

Teratogens

Harmful substances or conditions that impact prenatal development. Effects depend on timing, dosage, and genetic susceptibility.

Heritability

Proportion of trait variation attributable to genetic factors. Ranges from 0% to 100% and applies to populations, not individuals.

Volling (2012, 2007)

Children's responses to new siblings vary widely, with individual differences more significant than universal maladjustment.

Sibling Influences

Direct (interaction) and indirect (context creation) influences on development. Sibling warmth predicts empathy, while conflict can model antisocial behaviors.

Parental Differential Treatment (PDT)

Variations in parental behavior towards siblings that can affect emotional and behavioral development.

Diathesis-Stress Model

Suggests genetic vulnerability interacts with environmental stressors to influence mental health.

Differential Susceptibility Model

Genetic sensitivity to environments varies; some individuals are more affected by negative or positive environments than others.

Bioecological Model (Bronfenbrenner)

Describes layers of environment (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem) influencing development.

Parenting Styles (Baumrind)

Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive, Uninvolved. Distinguished by levels of warmth and control.

Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Designs

Research methods differ in how data is collected over time. Cross-sectional studies compare groups at a single point; longitudinal studies track changes over time.

Social Exchange Theory

Relationships are evaluated based on cost-benefit analysis, with individuals seeking to maximize rewards and minimize costs.

Historical Trends in Parenting (Hollingworth)

The evolution of parenting practices and the social devices used to enhance child development.

Neural Plasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life, especially during early development.

Concerted Cultivation vs. Accomplishment of Natural Growth

Different parenting styles focusing on structured guidance vs. allowing children to grow naturally.

2. Parent Support Programs - Programs designed to assist parents in effective child-rearing practices and enhance developmental outcomes.

Parent Support Programs

Programs designed to assist parents in effective child-rearing practices and enhance developmental outcomes.

Parental Control (Behavioural vs Psychological)

Behavioral control involves managing actions through rules; psychological control manipulates emotional and psychological state.

Storm and Stress Theory

The concept that adolescence is characterized by turbulence due to biological and psychological changes.

Models of Influence on Family

Definitions and examples of family influence models such as attachment, conflict theory, and systems theory.

Research Methods

Experimental, correlational, cross-sectional, and longitudinal designs.

Assessment Methods

Verbal reports, behavioral observations, physiological measurements.

Genetic Studies

Twin studies, adoption studies, heritability estimates, nature vs. nurture, gene-environment interactions.

Mental Health Disorders & Heritability

Schizophrenia, Bipolar Disorder, Major Depressive Disorder, Anxiety, OCD, ADHD, ASD.