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Affirmative Action
Policies designed to address past discrimination by providing opportunities in education and employment to historically marginalized groups, particularly racial minorities and women.
Title IX
A federal law passed in 1972 that prohibits sex-based discrimination in any educational program or activity receiving federal funding, significantly impacting women’s rights in education and sports.
Civil Rights
The rights of individuals to receive equal treatment under the law, particularly in areas like voting, education, employment, and public accommodations, without discrimination based on race, gender, or other characteristics.
Literacy Test
A method used primarily in the South to disenfranchise Black voters by requiring them to pass reading and writing tests, often unfairly administered, before being allowed to vote. These were banned by the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
A Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation under the “separate but equal” doctrine, effectively legalizing Jim Crow laws. This ruling was later overturned by Brown v. Board of Education.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
A landmark Supreme Court case that ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson and marking the start of the modern civil rights movement.
White Primary
A discriminatory practice used in Southern states to exclude Black voters from primary elections by allowing only white citizens to participate, significantly weakening Black political power until it was declared unconstitutional in Smith v. Allwright (1944).
13th Amendment (1865)
Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime.
14th Amendment (1868)
Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., ensured due process and equal protection under the law, and was used to challenge racial discrimination in court cases.
15th Amendment (1870)
Prohibited the federal and state governments from denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude, though voter suppression tactics still limited Black voting rights for decades.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
A landmark federal law that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in public accommodations, employment, and federally funded programs, effectively ending legal segregation.
