Carbohydrates and Lipids

Biochemistry

Carbohydrates

aldehyde or ketone derivatives(change slightly) of the polyhydric alcohols

cannot be hydrolyzed (broken down) into a simple form

Monosaccharides

classification of carbohydrates

• monosaccharides

• diasaccharides

yield 2 molecules of the same or different sugar

Disaccharides

Monosaccharides and their aldoses

• Glycerose (glyceraldehyde)

• Erythrose

• Ribose

• Glucose

Monosaccharides and their ketoses

• Dihydroxyacetone

• Erythrulose

• Ribulose

• Fructose

• Sedoheptulose

• Disaccharides

• Enzymic hydrolysis of starch (the branch points in amylopectin)

• Isomaltose

• Disaccharides

• Enzymic hydrolysis of starch (amylase); germinating cereals and malt

Maltose

• Disaccharides

• Milk

Lactose

• Disaccharides

• Heated milk (small amount), mainly synthetic

• Not hydrolyzed by intestinal enzymes, but fermented by essential bacteria; used as a mild osmotic laxative

Lactulose

• Disaccharides

• cane, beet sugar, sorghum, some fruits and vegetables

• Rare genetic lack of it leads to

  sucrose intolerance—diarrhea and

  flatulence

sucrose

• Disaccharides

• Yeasts and fungi

• the main sugar of insect hemolymph

Trehalose

• classification of carbohydrates

• yield 3 - 10 monosaccharides

• most are not digested by human enzymes

Oligosaccharides

• classification of carbohydrates

• condensation products of more than ten monosaccharide units

Polysaccharides

• Polysaccharides

• from Plant storage polysaccharide

starch

• Polysaccharides

• from the major storage carbohydrate in animals

Glycogen

• Polysaccharides

• from the tubers and roots of many plants; it’s not hydrolyzed by intestinal enzymes

Inulin

• Polysaccharides

• from the chief constituent of plants, cell walls; it is not hydrolyzed by intestinal enzymes

Cellulose

Glucose, with four asymmetric carbon atoms, can form __ isomers.

16 isomers.

D-Glucose

L-Glucose

Pyranose RIng ( Pyran)

Furanose Ring (Furan)

Alpha Anomers

Beta Anomers

Epimers—isomers differing as a result

of variations in configurations of the

–OH and –H on carbon 2,3 and 4 of glucose

mannose and galactose are

epimers of glucose

a potential keto group in position ___ , the

anomeric carbon of fructose,

a potential keto group in position 2, the

anomeric carbon of fructose,

potential aldehyde group in position____,

the anomeric carbon of glucose.

potential aldehyde group in position 1,

the anomeric carbon of glucose.

Glycolysis

การสลายกลูโคสให้เป็น Pyruvate

Oxidation of glucose is known as

glycolysis.

Aerobic glycolysis: the dominant product in most tissues is

pyruvate

what is the condition and product of Anaerobic glycolysis

• When oxygen is depleted, as for instance during prolonged vigorous exercise

• the dominant glycolytic product in many tissues is lactate

Gluconeogenesis form___ by ___

• Glycogen or glucose

• noncarbohydrate sources

example of product of gluconeogenesis

• glucogenic amino acid

• glycerol

• lactate

• pyruvates

Gluconeogenesis pathways mainly involving the

Citric acid cycle and glycolysis

Gluconeogenesis control by

• Liver (90%)

• Kidney (10%)

In glycolysis, what enzyme make Glucose → Glucose-6-Phosphate and what is the different ?

In glycolysis, what enzyme?

• It’s a rate-limiting enzyme

• inhibit by ATP , Citrate

• promote by AMP, Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (F2,6BP)

In glycolysis, this can also become ____ and be catalyzed by the _____ enzyme, and this enzyme is inhibited and promoted by ______.

• The goal is to make glycolysis faster by promoted PFK1

In glycolysis, what enzyme is in the last step ?

Pyruvate Kinase inhibit by ATP , Citrate

• In gluconeogenesis, what does pyruvate carboxylase turn pyruvate into?

• turn into oxaloacetate

• it’s a first step of gluconeogenesis.

In gluconeogenesis, what is the next step after pyruvate turns into oxaloacetate?

oxaloacetate will turn into phosphoenolpyruvate by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase.

In gluconeogenesis, what is the next step of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate?

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate will tern into Fructose-6-Phosphate by fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase.

The last step of gluconeogenesis is the conversion of and by ?

The last step of gluconeogenesis is the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to free glucose, catalyzed by the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase),

what is the rate-limiting enzyme in gluconeogenesis?

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

In gluconeogenesis, what is the regulation of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase?

In gluconeogenesis, what is the regulation of

In gluconeogenesis, what is the regulation of

Pentose Phosphate Pathway does

not lead to formation of ATP

Pentose Phosphate Pathway form___ for___.

The formation of NADPH for the synthesis of fatty acids and steroids

Pentose Phosphate Pathway synthesis ___ for ____.

The synthesis of ribose for nucleotide and nucleic acid formation.

Glucose is stored in plants as starch and in animals as

Glucose is stored in plants as starch and in animals as glycogen.

Glycogen is similar in structure to ____ but _____.

Glycogen is similar in structure to amylopectin but is larger, more

highly branched, and more compact.

Glycogen storage Disease, enzyme deficiency, and Type : Glycogen synthase,

O

Glycogen storage Disease, enzyme deficiency, and Type : Glucose 6-phosphatase, I

Von Gierke’s disease

Glycogen storage Disease, enzyme deficiency, and Type :Lysosomal α 1 –> 4 and α 1 -> 6 glucosidase, II

Pompe’s disease

Glycogen storage Disease, enzyme deficiency, and Type :Debranching enzym, III

Limit dextrinosis,

Forbe’s or Cori’s disease

Glycogen storage Disease, enzyme deficiency, and Type :Branching enzyme,IV

Amylopectinosis, Andersen’s disease

Glycogen storage Disease, enzyme deficiency, and Type :Muscle phosphorylase, V

Myophosphorylase deficiency,

McArlde’s syndrome

Glycogen storage Disease, enzyme deficiency, and Type :Liver phosphorylase, VI

Her’s disease

recommendation of daily energy from carbohydratres in woman

47.7 % (203g)

recommendation of daily energy from carbohydratres in man

48.5 % (275g)

• is coupled to the Na⁺-K⁺ pump,

• allowing glucose and galactose to be transported against their concentration gradients.

SGLT 1

• independent facilitative transporter

• allows fructose as well as glucose and galactose to be transported with their concentration gradients

GLUT 5 Na+

Exit from the cell for all the sugars is via the ___

facilitative transporter.

GLUT 2

tissue location: Brain, kidney, colon, placenta,

erythrocyte

Uptake of glucose

tissue location: Liver, pancreatic B cells, small

intestine, kidney

Rapid uptake and release of glucose

tissue location: Brain, Kidney, placenta

Uptake pf glucose

tissue location: heart and skeletal muscle,

adipose tissue

Insulin-stimulated uptake of glucose

tissue location: small intestine

Absorption of glucose

tissue location: Small intestine and kidney

Active uptake of glucose from lumen of intestine and

reabsorption of glucose in proximal tubule of kidney

against a concentration gradient

in Liver what increase by insulin

• Fatty acid synthesis

• Glycogen synthesis

• Protein synthesis

in adipose tissue what increase by insulin

• Glucose uptake

• Fatty acid synthesis

in muscle what increase by insulin

• Glucose uptake

• Glycogen synthesis

• Protein synthesis

in liver what Decreased by insulin

• Ketogenesis

• Gluconeogensis

in adipose tissue, what is decreased by insulin or increased by glucagon

Lipolysis

glycoprotein consist of

polypeptide covalently bonded to a carbohydrate moiety.

• unbranched polysaccharides consisting of a repeating disaccharide unit.

• The repeating unit consists of a hexose (six-carbon sugar) or a hexuronic acid, linked to a hexosamine (six-carbon sugar containing nitrogen).

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) or mucopolysaccharides are long

• exist at the cell surface and also in

the extracellular matrix (ECM), where they are bound

to proteins (red lines) to form proteoglycans.

• Owing to the highly hydrophilic nature of

the HSGAG chains, proteoglycans have a Christmas-tree-like extended conformation.

Heparan-sulphate

glycosaminoglycans

(HSGAGs; green lines)

• a highly-sulfated glycosaminoglycan, is widely used as an injectable anticoagulant

• has the highest negative charge density of any known biological molecule.

• It can also be used to form an inner anticoagulant surface on various experimental and medical

devices such as test tubes and renal dialysis machines.

• a naturally-occurring anticoagulant produced by basophils and mast cells.

• acts as an anticoagulant, preventing the formation of clots and extension of existing clots within the blood. While it does not break down clots that have already formed (unlike tissue plasminogen activator), it allows the body's natural clot lysis mechanisms to work normally to break down clots that have formed.

• The most common disaccharide unit is composed of a 2-O-sulfated iduronic acid and 6-O-sulfated, N-sulfated glucosamine, IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6S)

Heparin, also known as unfractionated heparin

• constitute a family of lysosomal storage diseases characterized by deficiencies in lysosomal hydrolases responsible for the degradation of glycosaminoglycans (historically called mucopolysaccharides).

• All of its diseases are chronic, progressively debilitating disorders that in many instances lead to severe psychomotor retardation and premature death. In addition, the clinical spectrum of these disorders can vary widely within one enzyme deficiency.

The mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS)