AP psych whole course review

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions; it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

A statement of the procedures used to define research variables.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Case Study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Population

All the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things, ranging from -1 to +1.

Scatterplots

A graphed cluster of dots, each representing the values of two variables.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process.

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, or to one version of the independent variable.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both participants and staff are ignorant about whether participants received the treatment or a placebo.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Confounding Variables

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution.

Median

The middle score in a distribution.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Dendrite

The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

Axon

The extension of a neuron through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses.

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Endorphins

Natural opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure.

Nervous System

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural 'cables' connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

Reflex

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

Endocrine System

The body's slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers, manufactured by endocrine glands, that travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues.

Adrenal Glands

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland, regulating growth and controlling other endocrine glands.

Lesion

Tissue destruction.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface.

PET Scan

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI Scan

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue.

fMRI

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard, directing messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex.

Reticular Formation

A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Cerebellum

The 'little brain' at the rear of the brainstem; coordinates movement output and balance.

Limbic System

Neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres, associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

Two neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure that directs several maintenance activities (e.g., eating, drinking) and governs the endocrine system.

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Glial Cells (Glia)

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.

Frontal Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex involved in speaking, muscle movements, and making plans and judgments.

Parietal Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex that receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex that receives visual information.

Temporal Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex involved in auditory processing.

Motor Cortex

Area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Sensory Cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Association Areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; involved in higher mental functions.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons.

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres.

Split Brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres.

Behavior Genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Chromosomes

Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up chromosomes.

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes.

Genome

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material.

Identical Twins

Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two.

Fraternal Twins

Twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs.

Temperament

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor depends on another factor.

Epigenetics

The study of influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Natural Selection

The principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on.

Gender

The biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female.

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people.

Norm

An understood rule for accepted and expected behavior.

Individualism

Giving priority to one's own goals over group goals.

Collectivism

Giving priority to the goals of one's group.

Aggression

Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.

X Chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women.

Y Chromosome

The sex chromosome found only in males.

Testosterone

The most important of the male sex hormones.