Key Events in European History: Wars, Revolutions, and Reforms

Thirty Years' War

Started as a religious war (Catholics vs. Protestants) and turned political when France joined Protestants, ending with the Peace of Westphalia.

Glorious Revolution (England)

Parliament kicked out King James II, leading to William and Mary becoming rulers and establishing a limited monarchy.

Louis XIV of France

Absolute ruler known as the 'Sun King' who took total control after his minister died and ended the Edict of Nantes, causing Huguenots to flee and hurting the economy.

Peter the Great (Russia)

Modernized Russia by introducing western ideas, built a navy, and won land on the Baltic Sea.

Catherine the Great (Russia)

Gained land in Poland and continued the westernization of Russia.

Prussia vs. Austria

Fought over control of German states, with Frederick William I giving nobles (Junkers) power to unite Prussia and Maria Theresa improving Austria's government.

English Bill of Rights (1689)

Gave Parliament power and stated that the monarch couldn't interfere with laws.

Tories vs. Whigs

Tories supported strong kings, while Whigs supported Parliament.

Reactions to Copernicus & Galileo

Copernicus' heliocentric model and Galileo's confirmation faced Church resistance, but many scholars supported them due to interest in new ideas.

Martin Luther vs. John Calvin

Luther believed in salvation through faith and a personal relationship with God, while Calvin believed in predestination with no human control over salvation.

Henry VIII and the English Reformation

Originally defended the Catholic Church but created the Church of England to annul his marriage after the Pope refused to grant a divorce.

Indulgences & Protestant Reformation

The Council of Trent ended the selling of indulgences, recognizing good deeds, not payment, for salvation.

Renaissance

A revival of Greek/Roman ideas and new art perspectives, influenced by the Colosseum and classical themes.

Martin Luther & the Peasants' Revolt

Luther denounced the peasants for using his ideas to demand social change.

Scientific discoveries

Johannes Kepler discovered that planets orbit in ovals, Anton van Leeuwenhoek improved the microscope, and Robert Boyle is known for modern chemistry.

Key artists & thinkers

Leonardo da Vinci created the Last Supper and Mona Lisa, Francesco Petrarch preserved classical texts, and Baldassare Castiglione stated that women's outward beauty shows inner goodness.

Reformation responses

The Council of Trent reformed corruption, Jesuits spread the Catholic faith, and the Peace of Augsburg allowed German princes to choose religion for their lands.

Geneva as Calvinist model

Under John Calvin, Geneva became a model for Calvinist practices.

Reasons for Britain's global power

Island location → trade advantage, strong navy, slave trade, business climate.

Impact of the American Revolution

French aid crucial (weapons, navy, leadership like Lafayette).

No taxation without representation

Colonists objected to taxes with no say.

John Locke & Enlightenment ideas

Natural rights: life, liberty, property.

Government by consent

Overthrow if it fails to protect rights.

Declaration of Independence

Reflects Locke's ideas.

Comparison: Thomas Hobbes vs. John Locke

Hobbes: humans are evil, need strong monarchy. Locke: humans are good, democracy protects rights.

Enlightenment culture & censorship

Avoided censorship by writing fiction.

Key Enlightenment thinkers

Montesquieu: separation of powers → US Constitution.

Adam Smith

Supply and demand → free markets.

Voltaire

Exposed corruption in Candide.

Enlightened despots

Joseph II traveled in disguise to learn peasants' problems.

Frederick the Great & Maria Theresa

Both reformed.

Women's rights

Mary Wollstonecraft: equality in education.

Saratoga

Turning point in American Revolution (France joined after).

Navigation Acts

Regulate colonial trade.

Natural law

From Scientific Revolution influenced Enlightenment.

Status of the Church

Before revolution: tax-exempt, owned land. During revolution: lost lands (Declaration), reduced power.

Nationalism & Napoleon

National pride helped Napoleon gain support.

Downfall of Louis XVI & Marie Antoinette

Letting Estates General meet, ignoring Third Estate demands, failed escape.

Jacobins vs. sans-culottes

Both in Third Estate, but sans-culottes had no votes and used violence. Jacobins had voting power.

Napoleon's Reforms

Napoleonic Code: men had authority over wives, ended some feudal practices.

Consulate government

After Directory.

Radicals & Reign of Terror

Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, used terror to maintain control.

Women's role in revolution

Versailles march forced king to return to Paris.

Important documents & outcomes

Declaration of Rights of Man → based on American Declaration of Independence.

Tennis Court Oath

Create a constitution.

National Assembly

Third Estate formed it to end monarchy's control.

Congress of Vienna

Suppress revolutions, restore monarchies.

Principle of legitimacy

Restore hereditary rulers.

Napoleon's defeat

Battle of Waterloo final defeat.

Scorched-earth policy

Used by Russians.