Anatomy and Physiology test yourself questions chapters 1-8

1-1 How does the anatomy of a muscle or bone differ from its physiology? Which describes appearance and location and which describes function?

Anatomy deals with the form and structure of the body and its parts; what things look like and where they are located. Physiology deals with the functions of the body and its parts; how things work and what they do.

1-1 How might abnormalities in an animal's anatomy or physiology have a negative impact on its health and well-being?

The various parts of the body must work together in near-perfect harmony to maintain homeostasis. Death and disease often result from the absence of normal body structure and functioning rather than some outside force.

1-2 How does each of the anatomic planes of reference (sagittal, median, transverse, and dorsal) divide a cow's body?

The Sagittal Plane would divide the body lengthwise into left and right parts that are not necessarily equal. (cows left side and right side)The Median Plane divides the body down the center of the body lengthwise into equal left and right halves. (sometimes called mid-sagittal plane) (cows exact left and right side)The Transverse Plane goes across the body and divides it into cranial and caudal parts that are not necessarily equal. (front half of the cow including the ribs, shoulders, front legs, head; rear of the cow including the hips, rear legs, tail)The Dorsal Plane is at right angles to the sagittal and transverse plane and divides the body into dorsal and ventral parts that are not necessarily equal. (cows back and cows stomach)

1-2 If you are facing a cat head-on, is its left ear on your left or right side?

It is on MY right side. The left and right sides of an animal are always described from THEIR perspective.

1-2 Why must the term rostral be used instead of cranial to describe structures on a hedgehog's head, but the term caudal works just fine?

The term cranial loses its meaning on the head because the cranium is part of the head. Rostral means toward the tip of the nose and is a way to indicate direction when talking about anatomy of the head (ie the eyes are rostral to the ears). Caudal still works fine because it means "toward the tail".

1-2 If your left hand is on a goat's belly and your right hand is on its back, which hand is on the animal's dorsal surface and which is on its ventral surface?

Left: Ventral

Right: Dorsal

1-2 The next time you see a dog, differentiate between the medial and lateral surfaces of one of its elbows and the proximal and distal ends of one of its legs.

Medial means toward the median plane so the inside of the elbow would be the medial surface. Lateral means away from the median plane so the outside of the elbow or leg would be the lateral surface.

Proximal and distal only refer to extremities relative to the body. Proximal means toward the body so the upper portion of the leg would be the proximal end. Distal means away from the body so the end of the leg/paw would be the distal portion.

1-2 If you insert a hypodermic needle into a horse's muscle to give it an injection, which end of the needle, the tip or the hub, is located deep in the muscle, and which end is located superficially?

Deep: Tip

Superficially: Hub

1-2 What surface of a hamster's front leg is in contact with the ground when it is walking normally? What surface of the hind leg?

Front Leg: Palmar

Hind Leg: Plantar

1-3 According to the principle of bilateral symmetry, single structures in the body are located on or near which anatomic plane of reference?

Bilateral symmetry means that the left and right halves of an animal's body are essentially mirror images of each other. Single structures are generally found in the center of the body near the median plane.

1-3 Where is the pleura found? Where is the peritoneum found?

All of the organs in the thoracic cavity, and the cavity itself, are covered by a thin membrane called the pleura.

The abdomen contains the digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs. These are lined by a thin membrane called the peritoneum.

1-3 What is the difference between the visceral and parietal layers of pleura and peritoneum?

The visceral layer of the pleura and peritoneum is the layer covering the organs.

The parietal layers line the cavity itself.

1-4 What is the difference between a cell, a tissue, an organ, and a system in an animal's body?

Cells: The smallest subdivision of the body that are capable of life.

Tissue: Specialized cells that are grouped together to form a similar function.

Organ: Made up of groups of tissues that function together for a common purpose.

System: Most complex level of body organization. Groups of organs that are involved in a common set of activities

1-4 What are the four basic tissues that make up an animal's body?

Epithelial

Connective

Muscle

Nervous

1-5 How does the normal anatomy and physiology of cells in an animal's body impact the health of the animal as a whole? How does the normal anatomy and physiology of the animal's body as a whole impact the health of each of its cells?

Body Health = System Health = Organ Health = Tissue Health = Cell Health.

1-5 How do homeostatic mechanisms influence the health of an animal?

Homeostasis summarizes all of the physiological processes that actively maintain balance in the various structures, functions, and properties of the body. ie an animal's body temp cannot vary more than a few degrees on either side before it interferes with other bodily functions. Every body system is involved in homeostasis.

2-1 What is an element?

A single pure substance made of one type of atom.

2-1 What is a chemical symbol?

A chemical symbol is derived from its name in English, Latin, or Greek.

2-1 Name the three subatomic particles.

Protons, neutrons, and electrons.

2-1 What is the electrical charge of each particle?

Protons - positive charge

Neutrons - no electrical charge/neutral

Electrons - negative charge

2-1 Which particles are in the nucleus of an atom?

Neutrons

2-1 How many electron shells would an atom have if it had 4 electrons?

2 shells

2-1 What is a mixture?

A combination of 2 or more substances.

2-1 List three types of mixture. How is each type similar to or different from the others?

Solutions: homogeneous mixtures of various substances

Colloids: heterogeneous mixtures that contain much larger sized solutes than those found in solutions.

Suspensions: heterogeneous mixtures containing large solutes that readily separate from the solution when there is no movement of the suspension.

2-1 How are compounds and mixtures different from one another?

Mixtures are physically mixed, while compounds are chemically bonded and can only be separated by breaking the chemical bonds.

2-2 What is a molecule?

The smallest particle of a substance, composed of 2 or more atoms, that retains the properties of the substance.

2-2 How does an ionic bond differ from a covalent bond?

Ionic bonds transfer electrons, while covalent bonds share electrons.

2-2 In what circumstance does a hydrogen bond commonly occur?

When a hydrogen atom is electrostatically attracted to another hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to a separate portion of the same molecule, or on a separate molecule all together.

2-2 What important function do hydrogen bonds perform in organic and inorganic chemicals?

It stabilizes the solution/molecule

2-3 What is a chemical reaction?

A chemical reaction involves the formation and breaking of bonds.

2-3 What are the 3 types of chemical reactions?

Synthesis, decomposition, and exchange.

2-3 The digestion of food uses which type of chemical reaction?

Decomposition reactions

2-3 What factors influence the rate of chemical reactions?

Concentration of reactants, temperature, activation energy, and catalysts.

2-4 What is the difference between organic and inorganic compounds?

Organic molecules tend to be large, complex molecules that contain carbon-carbon (C-C) covalent bonds or carbon-hydrogen (C-H) covalent bonds.

Inorganic molecules rarely contain carbon and do not contain C-C or C-H bonds.

2-4 Are only organic compounds necessary for life?

No, both organic AND inorganic compounds are necessary.

2-4 List 4 types of inorganic molecule that are important for life.

Water, salts, acids, and bases.

2-4 List 4 types of organic molecules that are important for life.

Proteins, carbohydrates, triglycerides, and nucleic acids.

2-4 What features does carbon possess that makes it particularly well suited for creating the chemistry of living creatures?

It's small in size and is electrically neutral so it never gains or loses electrons, it shares electrons with other atoms, it's able to form other carbon atoms, and, in a way, enables the formation of long hydrocarbon chains.

2-4 Define the term "functional group".

The reactive part of the molecule that determines the molecule's chemical activity.

2-5 Why is water called a polar molecule?

It has a slight positive charge in the area of the hydrogen atoms and a slight negative charge in the area of the oxygen atom.

2-5 What are the four properties of water that make it so necessary for life?

It's the universal solvent, an ideal transport medium, has a high heat capacity and high heat of vaporization, and is used for lubrication.

2-6 How is an ion different from an atom?

The difference has to do with net electrical charge. An atom can be an ion, but not all ions are atoms.

An ion is a particle or collection of particles with a net positive or negative charge.

An atom is the basic unit of an element. The identity of an element is determined by the number of positively charged protons in the atom's nucleus. A stable atom contains the same number of electrons as protons and no net charge.

2-6 What is an electrolyte?

Substances that have the ability to transmit and electrical charge.

2-6 What are some examples of electrolytes?

Sodium, potassium, and calcium.

2-7 Which type of compound is known as a proton donor: acid or base?

Acids

2-7 What does pH measure?

Acidity and alkalinity

2-7 Is a solution with a pH of 8.5 acidic or basic

Basic

2-7 How does a weak acid act as a buffer?

It keeps the pH in the neutral range.

2-8 What 3 elements are found in all carbohydrates?

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

2-8 What is the name of a simple sugar?

Monosaccharide

2-8 What process joins multiple simple sugars?

Dehydration Synthesis

2-8 What is another name for a complex, multiunit carbohydrate?

Polysaccharides

2-9 What 3 elements are found in all lipids?

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

2-9 Which atom makes up the backbone of all lipid molecules?

The glycerol molecule

2-9 Which lipids are polar: neutral fats or phospholipids?

Phospholipids

2-9 What is the function of lipids in the body?

Lipids are used for energy and are stored in fat for future energy needs.

2-10 What element is found in all proteins that is not found in carbohydrates or lipids?

Nitogren

2-10 What is the building block for proteins?

Amino acids

2-10 What is the name of the bond holding 2 amino acids together?

Peptide bond

2-10 What is a peptide?

A molecule containing 2 or more amino acids joined together.

2-10 How does an enzyme work?

They speed up a chemical reaction without being destroyed or altered, and are specific to the reaction they catalyze/the substrates.

2-11 How does a nucleotide differ from an amino acid?

Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids, while Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.

2-11 What 3 parts compose a nucleotide?

1. A nitrogenous base

2. Five-carbon sugar

3. Phosphate group

2-11 How many nitrogenous bases are there?

5

2-11 Explain the structure of DNA.

DNA acid molecules consist of 2 parallel strands of the nucleotides adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. DNA is the blue-print.

2-11 Why is DNA important to life?

It contains all of the instructions needed by the cell to build protein, and determines the shape and function of every tissue of the living organism.

2-12 How does an ATP molecule differ from a nucleotide?

ATP molecules have 3 phosphates, unlike nucleotides who just have one.

2-12 How does an ATP molecule supply a cell with energy to do work?

It breaks bonds to release energy. Enzymes must move the terminal phosphate group to another molecule.

3-1 What are the basic cellular functions that define life?

It has metabolism, can grow, develop, reproduce, adapt, respire, become influenced by outside stimuli, maintain a stable internal environment and convert food into usable energy.

3-1 Describe the series of events that scientists believe led to the formation of the first cells on earth.

Jolted by the fierce electrical energy from frequent lightning storms and by the intense, unabated radiation from the sun, the 3 molecules that made up the primitive atmosphere-methane gas, water, and ammonia-were forced to collide and split apart. Clustering into heavy droplets, these molecules are thought to have been washed from the atmosphere by driving rains into the warm, shallow seas bellow. There, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates evolved, which in turn arranged themselves over time into sophisticated, organized structures to become the first cells.

3-1 What is the difference between a prokaryote and a eukaryote?

Prokaryotes do not possess a nucleus, while Eukaryotes, meaning true nucleus, possess a nucleus.

3-1 Why are cells not the size of watermelons?

They would be too large and would not be able to take in nutrients fast enough to feed themselves. Therefore, the cell would die.

3-2 Name 3 structures that all mammalian cells possess

The cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.

3-2 What part of the lipid bilayer is hydrophobic and what part is hydrophilic

The side facing the outside is hydrophilic

The side facing the inside is hydrophobic

3-2 What types of protein are found in the cell membrane?

Structural and globular proteins are found within the cell membrane. Globular proteins include peripheral and integral proteins.

3-2 Where are these proteins located and what are their functions?

They are bound to the inside or outside surfaces of the cell membrane. Some integral proteins are located within the bilayer.

3-2 What are the molecular components of rafts and what role do rafts play in the life of a cell?

Rafts are plaquelike structures formed of densely packed phospholipids, cholesterol, and protein.

They're important in helping to organize functional areas on the cell surface, in initiating cytokinesis during cell division, and in forming depressions on the cell surface that may lead to involution and vesicle formation.

3-2 What is the glycocalyx and what important role does it play in cellular interaction?

Glycocalyx is the "sugar coating" that covers the surface of cells. It's composed of 2 families of molecules: cell adhesion molecules and membrane receptors. It provides improved cell-to-cell adhesion and represents an important biological marker for intercellular recognition and for the interactions between the cell and antibodies or the cell and viruses.

3-2 What are CAMs and what do they do?

CAMs are sticky glycoproteins that cover the surfaces of almost all of the cells in mammals; they allow the cells to bond to extracellular molecules and to each other.

3-2 What are membrane receptors and ligands, and what role do they play in the health of the cell? How does obesity affect cell membrane receptors for insulin?

Membrane receptors are integral proteins and glycoproteins that act as binding sites on the cell surface. Some of them play a vital role in cell-to-cell recognition, a process called contact signaling. They're also involved in a process called chemical signaling. Ligands are Hormones, neurotransmitters, and other chemical messengers that bind to specific binding sites on cell surfaces. Once bound to the cell membrane, ligands can bring out a change in the cell's activity. Obesity effects the cell membrane receptors ebcause the number of insulin receptors on the cell surface is decreased. This is a physiologic response to excessive fat stores in the animal and is one form of insulin resistance.

3-2 What are caveolae and what role do they play in the cell membrane?

Caveolae are small invaginations of the plasma membrane. They pinch off and migrate inside the cell to form tiny vesicles.

3-2 How are cilia and flagella different?

Cilia occur in large numbers on the exposed surface of some cells. They are shorter than flagella.

Flagella generally occur singly and are significantly longer than Cilia. Flagella moves cells through fluid, whereas cilia move fluid across cell surfaces.

3-2 Which are found more commonly in mammalian cells: cilia or flagella?

Cilia is more commonly found in mammalian cells.

3-3 What are the principal components of cytoplasm?

The principal components of cytoplasm are the cytosol, cytoskeleton, organelles, and inclusions.

3-3 What is cytosol and what kind of molecules are found in it?

Cytosol is the fluid of the cell. It is a viscous, semi-transparent liquid composed of dissolved electrolytes, amino acids, and simple sugars. Proteins are suspended in the cytosol to give it its thick, jellylike consistency.

3-3 What is the centrosome and what important roles does it play in the life of the cell?

The centrosome is an important region of the cytoskeleton located near the nuclear envelope. It is responsible for the coordination of building and breaking down microtubules in the cell.

3-3 What is the cytoskeleton and what is its function?

The cytoskeleton is a three-dimensional frame for the cell; but unlike our bones, it is neither rigid nor permanent. It is a flexible, fibrous structure that changes in accordance with the activities of the cell. It gives support and shape to the cell, enables it to move, provides direction for metabolic activity, and anchors the organelles.

3-3 How many types of fiber make up the cytoskeleton? Can you name them? How do they function differently?

Three different types of fiber make up the cytoskeleton. The first one, microtubules, are long, hollow tubes that grow out from the cell center near the nucleus. They form secure "cables" to which mitochondria, lysosomes, and secretory granules attach. The second one, intermediate fibers, are woven, ropelike fibers that possess high tensile strength and are able to resist forces pulling on the cell by acting as internal guy wires. The third and final one, microfilaments, are located near the cell surface on the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane are are arranged in bundles and meshworks. They are composed of the contractile protein actin and, together with the motor protein myosin, play a key role in the cell's ability to change shape, break apart during cell division, and form outpouchings and ivolutions.

3-3 What are the eight different organelles?

The mitochondria, golgi apparatus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, and peroxisomes.

3-3 How does each of these organelles function within the cell?

Mitochondria- In the mitochondria, large nutrient molecules, such as glucose, are processed and broken down into smaller ones, which can be used intracellulary to fuel most metabolic processes.

Golgi apparatus- Small, spherical transfer sacs from the ER containing newly manufactured proteins are received by the Golgi apparatus. These sacs fuse with the membrane at the ends of the Golgi apparatus and dislodge their contents into the Golgi cisternae.

Ribosomes- The ribosome is composed of 2 globular subunits, which fit together like cupped hands. The ribosome is an important site for protein synthesis. Soluble protein intended for intracellular use is manufactured on ribosomes that are evenly distributed freely throughout the cytoskeleton. Protein intended for use in the plasma membrane or meant for cellular export, on the other hand, is synthesized on ribosomes attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Endoplasmic reticulum- A series of flattened tubes stacked on one another and bent into a crescent shape. The walls of the ER are composed of a single lipid bilayer and are continuous with the membranes of the nucleus.

Lysosomes- A specialized vesicle formed by the Golgi Apparatus. It contains powerful enzymes enclosed in a single, protective membrane, which fuses with other vesicles carrying nutrients, microbes, or aged cellular parts.

Peroxisomes- Membranous sacs containing enzymes that are found throughout the cell. Peroxisomes are formed by vesicles pinching in half via fission or by pinching off from the ER. They commonly occur in live and kidney cells, and are important to the detoxification of various molecules.

3-4 Why do inclusions vary in appearance? What function do they perform?

Inclusions vary in appearance depending on what they contain. Inclusions are packaged units of metabolic products or substances that the cell has engulfed. They may be delineated by a surrounding, single-layer membrane, as seen in secretory granules, vacuoles, and vesicles, or they may be non-membrane bound inclusions, such as lipid droplets and fat globules. Vacuoles are larger than vesicles but are otherwise identical in structure. They are often filled with water and solutes that are transported to and from the cell surface. Some vesicles act simply as storage units.

3-4 What role does the centriole play in the formation of cilia and flagella?

Centrioles form the bases of cilia and flagella, and in this role are known as basal bodies.

3-4 How are centrioles structurally similar to cilia and flagella?

Centrioles are structurally similar to cilia and flagella because all consist of microtubules.

3-4 Why is the nucleus considered the "CEO of operations"?

The nucleus is considered the CEO of operations because its primary function is to house the inherited instructions for making all of the protein needed by the organism.

3-4 Can a cell that does not contain a nucleus live as long as a cell that does contain one? Why or why not?

No, because the cell can't divide, repair itself, or make enzymes or proteins without a nucleus.

3-4 Describe the nuclear envelope. How is it different from the cell membrane?

The nuclear envelope is composed of a lipid bilayer. The outer layer is continuous with the ER and is studded with ribosomes. The cell membrane is a lipid bilayer that surrounds the entire cell, while the nuclear membrane is not a continuous sheet, while the envelope surrounds the nucleus.

3-4 How do histones play a role in gene regulation?

Histones help keep the DNA stand organized and untangled, and they also expose small sections of the DNA to the outside of the nucleoplasm. These sections of DNA are called Genes. By changing shape, the histones can expose different genes at different times.

3-4 What is the significance of the nucleolus? What happens in that region of the nucleus?

The nucleolus is important because it transcribes ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and combines it with protein to form incomplete ribosomes. This region of the nucleus is where ribosome formation begins.

4-1 List 3 fluid compartments in the body.

Intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid and intravascular fluid.

4-1 What is an electrolyte?

An electrolyte is a charged particle (anion or cation) capable of conducting an electric current in solution.