Depth Study 2: The New Deal and civil rights

What was the impact of the Great Depression on the rural South?

Crop prices collapsed leaving farmers in extreme poverty. New Deal programs like the AAA aimed to help but often benefited landowners over struggling workers. As a result, many migrated to cities/North for opportunities

What did the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) do?

Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) aimed to reduce crop overproduction and raise prices by paying farmers to cut back on planting. However, many tenant farmers and sharecroppers, including African Americans, were displaced as landowners took the payments but removed workers from their land.

Who was Robert Weaver and what was his role in the New Deal?

An AA economist who became Special Adviser on the ‘Economic Status of the Negro’ in 1934 and later the head of the PWA.

His appointment led to grants of $45 million to build schools, hospitals and homes for African Americans.

What provision was made for African American workers in federal projects for house building?

Public Works Administration (PWA), many AA’s were restricted to poorly funded, segregated housing projects and faced job discrimination in construction work.

What were the benefits of poor relief and job creation projects administered by the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and the World Progress Administration?

Over 1 / 4 million AA’s were given literacy help via federal aid projects.

Employment training was also provided by the National Youth Administration, advised by AA reformer, Mary McLeod Bethune.

What help did the Farm Security Administrators give to Southern African Americans?

The (FSA) provided low-interest loans, education, and housing assistance to struggling Southern AA farmers.

What was Roosevelt's stance on lynchings?

He spoke out against lynchings, though no law was passed against them as he was attempting to keep the Democratic party together.

Were there any appointments of African Americans to New Deal offices?

In FDR’s cabinet: Robert Weaver (an advisor on economic policies) and Mary McLeod Bethune (focusing on AA youth employment and education.)

What was Eleanor Roosevelt's stance on segregation?

She openly disapproved of segregation and supported African American organizations.

Did the NAACP grow in membership during the late 1930s?

Yes, the NAACP grew in membership in the late 1930 reaching over 500,000 members by 1940.

What was the impact of the New Deal on civil rights legislation?

While it provided some economic relief and job opportunities for African Americans, it largely ignored racial equality but laid groundwork for future legislation.

What were the setbacks to the progress of civil rights during this period?

African Americans suffered from unemployment, attempts to improve working conditions excluded African American labor, NRA regulations were evaded by employers, strengthening of unions acted against African Americans, Social Security Act provisions did not apply to African Americans, segregation remained prevalent, CCC labor camps were segregated and offered poorly paid work, Roosevelt did not increase African American voting rights.

What is the National Industry Recovery Act (NIRA)?

NIRA, passed 1933, was an act that helped to improve relations between employers and employees with a series of codes concerning production, wages and hours. But, it later faced criticism for failing to address racial and gender inequalities, later declared unconstitutional by Supreme Court in 1935.

What is the Wagner Act of 1935?

The Wagner act protected workers' rights to form unions, engage in collective bargaining, and take collective action.

What is the National Labor Relations Board?

The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), established by the Wagner Act of 1935, is a federal agency that oversees and enforce these rights, strengthening labor rights and improving conditions for workers and resolves disputes between employers and employees.

What is the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938?

The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) 1938 established federal standards for minimum wage, overtime pay, and child labor. Aiming to improve working conditions by setting a 40-hour workweek and banning child labor in certain industries.

What is the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) 1938?

The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), 1938, was a federation of industrial unions that advocated for better wages, working conditions, and labor rights. It played a key role in organising workers across industries, including African Americans and women.

What is the position of workers during periods of economic slump?

Workers typically face high unemployment, wage cuts and poor working conditions.

Labor unions may struggle to gain traction, and many workers are forced into low-wage, temporary, or exploitative jobs.

Economic slump often weakens workers' bargaining power and increases poverty levels.

What is the effect of high rate of unemployment on unions?

High unemployment weakens workers' unions by reducing their bargaining power, as employers can easily replace workers.

It also makes workers more reluctant to strike or demand higher wages due to the fear of losing their jobs.

What is the result of less industrial conflict during periods of economic slump?

Employers may use the threat of layoffs to discourage collective action, and workers, fearing job loss, may accept poor conditions, leading to a temporary suppression of labor unrest, delaying progress on labor rights.

What was a key event or development in the 1930s that differs from usual struggles workers faced during economic downturns?

The exception to the pattern of workers' position during the 1930s was the rise of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). Despite high unemployment, the CIO successfully organised industrial workers, including AA’s and women, and led significant strikes, pushing for better wages, working conditions, and union recognition.

What is the impact of the National Industry Recovery Act (NIRA) and the National Recovery Administration (NRA)?

The National Industry Recovery Act (NIRA) and the National Recovery Administration (NRA) helped to improve relations between employers and employees with a series of codes concerning production, wages and hours.

What is the impact of the Wagner Act of 1935?

It gave workers the right to elect their own representatives to take part in collective bargaining and the right to join unions.

What is the impact of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938?

It established a minimum weekly wage.

What is the impact of the National Labor Relations Board?

It had the power to bargain on behalf of workers.

What is the impact of the recognition of unions?

It encouraged a growth in union membership.

What is the change in the nature of unions with the establishment of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)?

It encouraged whole-industry unions and encouraged minority ethnic groups, such as African Americans, to join unions.

What is the impact of General Motors recognising the United Automobile Workers' union in 1936?

Industries that had resisted recognising unions changed their position.

What is the impact of US Steel recognising the Steel Workers Organizing Committee in 1937?

Industries that had resisted recognising unions changed their position.

What is the change in union membership from 1933 to 1938?

It rose from 3.7 million to 9 million.

What is the challenge to the position of organised labour during the 1930s?

Resistance from employers and the gov.

What did Henry Ford not recognise?

NIRA or Wagner Act

When was NIRA declared unconstitutional?

1935

What did some employers do to break strikes?

Intimidated workers, used violence

Which workers did not benefit from improvements?

Unskilled workers in agriculture or domestic work. mostly AA in the South

Why did women not make gains in pay?

Women did not make gains in pay during the 1930s due to gender discrimination. Many New Deal programs reinforced these disparities, and women were typically excluded from higher-paying industrial jobs, relegated to lower-wage positions. (NIRA and Fair Labor Standards act)

Why were welfare reforms not always successful?

Conflicts between state and federal rights

Was the extension of rights achieved by the start of WWII?

Some rights had been extended, particularly in labor and employment through New Deal programs, but significant civil rights progress for African Americans, women, and other minorities was limited. Racial segregation and gender inequality persisted, and many New Deal reforms still excluded or discriminated against these groups.

What was surprising during this period of limited job security?

The continued use of violent strikes by workers

Was there any improvement in the position of workers by the end of the 1930s?

Yes, by the end of the 1930s, workers saw some improvements, including better wages, stronger union rights under the Wagner Act (1935), and increased union membership, especially through the CIO.

However, many workers, especially women and African Americans, still faced discrimination and low pay.

Which workers made gains in pay?

Skilled industrial workers and unionized laborers.

What was the position of Native Americans before the Depression?

Before the Depression, Native Americans faced extreme poverty, loss of land, and government policies that aimed to assimilate them into white society. The Dawes Act (1887) had divided tribal lands, weakening their communities, and many lived in poor conditions on reservations with limited economic opportunities.

What was the Indian Reorganisation Act / Wheeler-Howard act?

The Wheeler-Howard Act (1934), also known as the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA), aimed to reverse Native American assimilation policies by restoring tribal self-government and promoting economic development on reservations.

What did the Indian Reorganisation Act allow Native Americans to do?

It ended the allotment system, provided funds for economic development, and encouraged self-governance and allowed them to practice their own religion.

What did the Indian Reorganisation Act do to the sale of Native American lands?

Stopped it

What did Native American children learn in local schools?

Their own languages, traditions, and cultural practices alongside standard subjects.

What was the result of the reforms for Native American culture?

Greater respect, revived NA culture

Who led tribes on the reservations after the reforms?

Tribal governments

What did the training provided for Native Americans help improve?

Farming

What facilities were provided for Native Americans?

Better medical facilities

What was the allotment policy?

Policy brought in by Dawes Act of 1887 that led to poverty and hardship.

What was the impact of the New Deal on Native Americans?

The New Deal had a mixed impact on Native Americans. The Indian Reorganization Act (1934) reversed some assimilation policies, restored tribal self-government, and provided economic support for land and resource management. However, it didn't fully resolve issues like poverty or sovereignty. While it helped preserve Native culture and traditions, the overall economic and social conditions for many Native Americans remained difficult.

What was the policy of assimilation?

The policy of assimilation aimed to integrate Native Americans into mainstream American society by forcing them to adopt Western customs, language, and values. This policy often involved attending boarding schools, dividing tribal lands through the Dawes Act (1887), and discouraging Native languages and religions. The goal was to erase Native American cultural identities and make them more like European Americans.

What was the policy of termination?

Policy introduced after WWII that further undermined Native Americans.

How was the Wheeler-Howard Act accepted?

By secret ballot among tribes, despite NA tribes preferring traditional ritual councils such as a discussion among the group.

How many tribes rejected the measures of self-governing bodies?

75 out of 245.

What happened to the idea of a separate federal court for Native Americans?

It was abandoned NA legal affairs were still largely handled by the federal government causing legal challenges.

What was the impact of insufficient funds?

Former reservation lands that had been sold could not be bought back.

What do some critics argue about the gains of the New Deal for Native Americans?

They were at best short term and limited by the financial demands of WWII.

Did Roosevelt appoint women in his cabinet, and who?

Frances Perkins, Secretary of Labor helped develop the Social Security act and Fair Labor Standards act.

Eleanor Roosevelt, First Lady who actively supported women’s rights

Mary McLeod Bethune, Worked to improve educational and employment opportuities for AA’s

How did administration policies indirectly effect women? (4)

Fair Labor Standards Act (1938): Established minimum wages and working hours, benefiting women, though wage gaps persisted.

Wagner Act (1935): Supported unionization, but women were often excluded from leadership roles in unions and faced pay inequity.

Social Security Act (1935): Provided benefits for widows, single mothers, and dependent children but excluded women in domestic/agricultural work.

WPA: Created jobs in education and healthcare for women, but wages were lower than men's for similar work.

How was women’s political confidence increased during the New Deal?

Eleanor Roosevelt’s influence so increased political representation, New Deal job programmes increased independence

How much did unionised female labor increase between 1930-1940?

About 300%

What continued about the traditional belief around women’s pay?

Women continued to receive lower wages under the belief women’s work was less valuable, but women were often employed in lower paid jobs

Did women in domestic sectors benefit from the new deal programmes?

Women such as housemaids or nannies didn’t receive aid as they were excluded from the Social Security act and they were left without pension schemes or insurance

What was the priority focus of the New Deal action?

New Deal programmes primarily benefitted men, especially those in construction, agriculture, manufacturing where men were the dominant work force. Although, some women did benefit second-hand from some legislation (Fair Labor standards act, Wagner act, Social Security act.)