psych unit 2

perception

how the brain interprets sensory information

bottom-up processing

starting with small details and then building up a complete perception

top-down perception

interpreting sensory information based on the larger context

selective attention

focusing on one specific aspect of information

cocktail party effect

ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment

inattentional blindness

individual fails to notice an unexpected stimulus when their attention is on something else

change blindness

failure to notice large changes in ones environment

schemas

frameworks that help us organize and interpret information

perceptual set

tendency to perceive some sensory aspects and ignore others

gestalt psychology

perception of whole objects instead of individual parts

figure-ground

the ability to distinguish and object from its surroundings

binocular depth cues

visual information requires both eyes to perceive depth and distance

retinal disparity

each eye sees a slightly different picture because of their separate positions on the face

convergence

when the eyes move towards each other to focus on a close object

monocular depth cues

indicators can be perceived from just one eye

relative clarity

having a clearer and more detailed view of things that are closer

relative size

objects that are closer to us appear to be larger

texture gradient

the way we perceive texture as it relates to distance

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge as they get further away

interposition

when one object overlaps another leading us to perceive the overlapping object as closer

perceptual constancies

the brains ability to see objects as unchanging even when the image changes

shape constancy

our ability to perceive an object as having the same shape even when the angle changes

size constancy

perception that an object remains the same size even when the distance changes

color constancy

ability to perceive colors of an object as stable under various lighting

apparent movement

perception of movement when there isn’t any motion occuring

metacognition

thinking about one’s own thinking processes

executive functions

cognitive processes that allow individuals to plan, organize, and carry out goal directed behaviors

prototypes

the best example of a concept

assimilation

fitting new information into existing schemas

accommodation

modifying existing schemas in response to new information

convergent thinking

focuses on finding a single correct solution to a problem

divergent thinking

generate creative thinking ideas by exploring many possible solutions

creativity

new and unique ideas

functional fixedness

using an object only in its traditional way

algorithms

step by step procedures for solving problems that guarantee a correct solution

heuristics

mental shortcuts that simplify decision making by reducing cognitive burden

representative heuristics

mental shortcut leading to the judgement of something based on how close it is to a stereotype

availability heuristic

relies on immediate examples that come to a persons mind when evaluating a specific topic

mental set

tendency to approach situations in a certain way because that method worked in the past

priming

exposure to stimulus influences response without conscious guidance

framing

how information is presented influences decisions

gamblers fallacy

the outcome of a random event is influenced by previous outcomes

sunk-cost fallacy

individuals continue investing into something because they have already invested so much into it

intelligence

ability to learn and use knowledge to adapt

g (general intelligence)

overarching mental ability

multiple intelligence

theory that individuals possess different types of intelligence

growth mindset

belief that abilities/intelligence can be developed

fixed mindset

belief that intelligence is predetermined and cannot be significantly changed

intelligence quotient (IQ)

numerical measure of an individuals cognitive abilities

mental age

level of performance associated with a certain age

standardization

consistent testing procedures for administering psychological assessments

achievement tests

measures a persons knowledge skills in a specific area

aptitude tests

measures a persons potential for mastering specific skills in the future

validity

extent to which a test accurately measures what it intended to measure

construct validity

checks if a test really measures what it’s meant to

predictive validity

how well a test can forecast future outcomes

reliability

consistency in test results

test-retest reliability

assess consistency by administering that same test to the same group twice

split-half reliability

divide a test into two halves and compares the scores between them

flynn effect

the trend of average IQ scores increasing every generation

stereotype threat

phenomenon where individuals underperform where they are at risk of confirming negative stereotypes

stereotype lift

individuals perform better due to positive expectations

memory

persistence of learning over time

encoding

perceived information is transferred into a format that can be processed

storage

process of retaining information over time

retrieval

accessing and bringing stored information back

multi-store model

describes memory as a three-part system: sensory, short-term, long-term

sensory memory

initial stage of memory, stimuli is received from the senses

iconic memory

visual memory, copy of a visual scene

echoic memory

memory that retains auditory information

short-tem memory

limited capacity of memory, 15-30 seconds

long-term memory

information is stored indefinitely

working memory

temporarily holding and manipulating information

central executive

control center of working memory

phonlogical loop

processing and storing verbal and auditory information, temporarily holds words and sounds and rehearses information

visuospatial sketchpad

temporarily storage and manipulation of images and spatial relationships

long-term potentiation

major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory

effortful processing

memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed information

automatic processing

unconscious encoding information

levels of processing model

the depth at which information is thought about effects how well it is remembered

shallow encoding

processing that focuses on surface characteristics of information

structural

type of shallow processing that fouses on the physical structure of information

phonemic

shallow processing that focuses on auditory aspects of information

deep encoding

thoroughly processing information by connecting it to existing knowledge

chunking

grouping individual pieces of information into larger, more meaningful units

categories

grouping related items together into categories

hierarchies

system of ranked categories

mnemonics

techniques used to improve memory, association it with simple cues

retrieval cues

stimuli that helps bring previously learned information to mind

external cues

environmental factors that trigger memories

internal cues

thoughts/feelings associated with the original learning

recall

accessing information without cues

recognition

memory retrieval that involves identifying information when it is presented (familiarity and identification)

context-dependent memory

remembering better in the same environment where you first learned information

state-dependent memory

memory retrieval is more effective in the same state of consciousness in which it was learned

mood-congruent memory

recall of information that is consistent with one’s current mood

serial position effect

tendency to remember items at the beginning or end of a list

primacy effect

phenomenon where individuals tend to remember items presented at the beginning of a list better

recency effect

phenomenon where individuals recall most recently presented items on a list

testing effect

phenomenon where information is retrieved through testing