Research Ethics: MIDTERM

Chapters 1-5

Intuition

Relying on gut feelings, emotions, or instincts. Not based on logic or evidence; can be influenced by biases. Sometimes useful, but often unreliable and prone to error.

Authority

Accepting information as true because it comes from an authority figure (parents, doctors, media, religious authority, government and professors). Convenient but can be flawed if the authority is incorrect, biased, or misleading. It is important to evaluate the credibility and motivation of the authority.

Rationalism

Using logic and reasoning to draw conclusions from premises. Valid if the premises are true and logic is correctly applied. Can fail if premises are false or reasoning is flawed.

Empiricism

Gaining knowledge through observation and experience. Limited by personal perspective and sensory errors. Forms the basis of the scientific method through structured observation.

The scientific method

Combines systematic observation (empiricism) with logic (rationalism) to test ideas. Most reliable method for producing valid knowledge. Limitations include time/resource demands and inability to answer non-empirical questions.

Pseudoscience

Refers to activities and beliefs that are claimed to be scientific by their proponents-and may appear to be scientific at first glance-but are not. They fail to meet the standards of scientific investigation, such as systematic empiricism, public sharing of knowledge, and falsifiability.

Examples of Pseudoscience

Biorhythms – Claims that physical, emotional, and intellectual abilities follow fixed cycles from birth, but lacks scientific support. Astrology – Belief that the positions of stars and planets influence human behavior. Extrasensory Perception (ESP) – Claims of psychic abilities that vanish when closely observed. Graphology – The idea that handwriting reveals personality traits. Magnet therapy – The belief that magnets can relieve pain without scientific evidence.

Describe

Making careful observations to identify and document patterns or behaviors. Example: Surveying medical marijuana patients to observe and record which medical conditions they use marijuana to treat (pain, anxiety, depression).

Predict

Once a consistent relationship between two events or behaviors is observed, science aims to predict future occurrences based on that relationship. Example: After learning that most medical marijuana patients use it for pain, we can predict that someone who uses medical marijuana likely experiences pain.

Explain

The most advanced goal of science is to explain-to identify causes and mechanisms behind behaviors or events. Example: Researchers might study how marijuana reduces pain-whether it works by reducing inflammation or by lessening the emotional distress caused by pain.

Basic Research

To gain a deeper and more accurate understanding of human behavior. Focus: Not aimed at solving any specific practical problem. Example: Studying how often people talk throughout the day to understand general patterns of communication.

Applied Research

To solve practical problems or address real-world issues. Focus: Directly connected to improving situations or informing policy. Example: Researching how using a cell phone while driving affects safety, which has influenced traffic laws.

Skepticism

Pausing to consider alternatives and searching for evidence-especially systematically collected empirical evidence-when there is enough at stake to justify doing so. Example: If a magazine claims that giving children a weekly allowance builds financial responsibility, skepticism means pausing to ask if it could instead lead to materialism, questioning whether the claim is supported by scientific evidence, considering whether the author is a scientific researcher, and looking into the research literature if the issue is important.

Common Sense or Folk Psychology (incorrect examples)

Anger can be relieved by "letting it out" (e.g., punching something or screaming). No one would confess to a crime they didn’t commit unless physically tortured.

Empirically Supported Treatment

One that has been studied scientifically and shown to result in greater improvement than no treatment, a placebo, or some alternative treatment. These include many forms of psychotherapy, which can be as effective as standard drug therapies.

Examples of Empirically Supported Treatments

Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) – for depression, mixed anxiety disorders, psychosis, chronic pain, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behavioral couples therapy – for alcohol use disorders. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) – for many disorders including eating disorders, depression, anxiety disorders, etc. Exposure therapy – for post-traumatic stress disorder and phobias. Exposure therapy with response prevention – for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Family-based treatment – for eating disorders.

Science

The systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment.

Pseudoscience (Key Term)

Refers to activities and beliefs that are claimed to be scientific by their proponents-and may appear to be scientific at first glance-but are not.

Basic Research (Key Term)

Research conducted primarily for the sake of achieving a more detailed and accurate understanding of human behavior, without necessarily trying to address any particular practical problem.

Applied Research (Key Term)

Research conducted primarily to address some practical problem.

Folk Psychology

Intuitive beliefs about people’s behavior, thoughts, and feelings.

Skepticism (Key Term)

Pausing to consider alternatives and to search for evidence-especially systematically collected empirical evidence-when there is enough at stake to justify doing so.

Tolerance for Uncertainty

Accepting that there are many things that we simply do not know.

Empirically Supported Treatments (Key Term)

A treatment that has been shown through systematic observation to lead to better outcomes when compared to no-treatment or placebo control groups.

What makes a research question interesting

There are 3 factors that affect the interestingness of a research question: 1. Answer is in doubt 2. Fills a gap in the research literature 3. Has important practical implications.

What does it mean when a research question’s answer is in doubt

The question is interesting when there’s a reasonable chance that the answer isn’t obvious. There should be potential for multiple plausible answers, especially ones that conflict with common sense or stereotypes. If only one answer seems likely, the question is not interesting.

What does it mean for a research question to fill a gap in the research literature

The question addresses something that has not yet been studied or clearly answered by previous research. It feels like a natural next step for those familiar with existing studies and contributes something new or expands on current understanding in the field.

What does it mean for a research question to have important practical implications

The answer has real-world relevance or could affect decision-making, policy, or behavior. It might influence practices in areas like education, healthcare, law, or public safety. The question is not just theoretically important but also socially or practically meaningful.

How can research questions be evaluated for interestingness

Consider whether more than one reasonable answer can be expected, whether it has been clearly answered in prior research, whether it contributes something new to the field, and whether it has relevance beyond academic interest such as practical or societal importance.

Difference between a theory and a hypothesis

A theory explains; a hypothesis predicts. Theories are broad and conceptual; hypotheses are specific and testable.

What is a theory

A coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena that goes beyond direct observations, incorporating variables, structures, processes, or principles that explain how or why something happens.

What is a hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory or from prior observations. It is narrower and more focused than a theory, often concerning what will happen in a particular study or context.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

1. Testable and falsifiable 2. Logical 3. Positive statement.

What does testable and falsifiable mean for a hypothesis

A hypothesis must be capable of being tested using scientific methods and must be falsifiable, meaning it is possible to collect evidence that could prove it wrong if it is false.

What does it mean for a hypothesis to be logical

It should be based on logical reasoning and informed by previous theories, research, or observations, not a random guess.

What does it mean for a hypothesis to be a positive statement

A good hypothesis predicts the existence of a relationship or effect, not the absence of one.

What is a variable

Any trait, factor, or condition that can change across individuals, situations, or time. Variables are what researchers measure, manipulate, or observe to understand behavioral or mental processes.

What is a quantitative variable

A variable representing quantities or numerical values that can be counted or measured, such as number of hours of sleep or reaction time.

What is a categorical variable

A variable representing groups, categories, or qualities rather than numbers, such as gender, ethnicity, or relationship status.

Difference between a population and a sample

A population is the entire group of individuals a researcher wants to study. A sample is a smaller subset of that population that is actually studied.

What is experimental research

Research in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables (independent variables) to see how they affect other variables (dependent variables) to determine cause and effect.

What is non-experimental research

Research in which the researcher does not manipulate variables but observes and measures relationships as they naturally occur.

Difference between lab studies, field studies, and field experiments

Lab studies are highly controlled but lack real-world realism. Field studies occur in natural settings without manipulation. Field experiments are conducted in real-world settings where variables are still manipulated to test cause and effect.

Difference between descriptive and inferential statistics

Descriptive statistics summarize and organize data you have. Inferential statistics use sample data to make conclusions or predictions about a population.

Why do scientists avoid the term scientific proof

Because science is about evidence and probability, not absolute certainty.

Interestingness

How engaging, new, or important a research question is.

Feasibility

How practical and possible a study is to conduct (time, money, access, etc.).

Theory

A general explanation of how or why certain events or behaviors occur.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Variable

Anything that can change or vary in a study.

Operational definition

A clear, measurable way of defining a variable for research purposes.

Population

The entire group a researcher wants to study.

Sample

A smaller group selected from the population for the actual study.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured to see the effect of the independent variable.

Extraneous variables

Uncontrolled factors that might influence the results.

Confounds

Variables that change along with the independent variable and may cause changes in the dependent variable.

Laboratory study

Research done in a controlled setting.

Field study

Research done in a natural, real-world environment without manipulation.

Field experiment

Research in a real-world setting where variables are still manipulated.

Internal validity

How well a study shows that the independent variable actually caused the changes in the dependent variable.

External validity

How well the results of a study can be generalized to other people or settings.

Descriptive statistics

Numbers that summarize data such as mean, median, or standard deviation.

Inferential statistics

Tests that allow researchers to make conclusions or predictions about a population from a sample.

Statistically significant

Results unlikely to have occurred by chance.

What are the four moral principles to consider in psychological research ethics

Weighing risks against benefits; Acting responsibly and with integrity; Seeking justice; Respecting people's rights and dignity.

What three groups do ethical principles apply to

Research participants, science, and society.

What are the major historical ethics codes for research with human participants

Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, Belmont Report, and Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects.

What is the most important ethics code for psychology researchers

The American Psychological Association (APA) Ethics Code.

What does Standard 8 of the APA Ethics Code address

Informed consent, deception, debriefing, use of nonhuman animal subjects, and scholarly integrity in research.

What is informed consent in research

Researchers must inform participants of everything that might reasonably affect their decision to participate, usually through a consent form, though it involves more than just signing a form.

When is deception allowed in research

Only when the benefits outweigh the risks, participants are not expected to be harmed, there is no other way to conduct the study, and participants are informed of the deception as soon as possible.

What is debriefing

Explaining the true nature of the study to participants after it ends, especially if deception was used.

How does the APA Ethics Code protect nonhuman animals

It ensures ethical treatment of animals used in research under Standard 8.

What does scholarly integrity mean in research

Researchers must maintain honesty and responsibility in conducting and reporting research.

Ethics

The branch of philosophy concerned with morality—what it means to behave morally and how people can achieve that goal.

Confederate

A helper who pretends to be a real participant in a study.

Autonomy

A person's right to make their own choices and take their own actions free from coercion.

Informed consent

Researchers obtain and document people’s agreement to participate after informing them of everything that might affect their decision.

Privacy

A person's right to decide what information about them is shared with others.

Confidentiality

An agreement not to disclose participants’ personal information without their consent or appropriate legal authorization.

Anonymity

When a participant's name and identifying information are not collected at all.

Nuremberg Code

A set of 10 ethical principles for research written in 1947 following the Nuremberg trials of Nazi physicians.

Declaration of Helsinki

An ethics code created by the World Medical Council in 1964.

Belmont Report

A 1978 federal guideline responding to the Tuskegee study that emphasizes justice, respect for persons, and beneficence and formed the basis for U.S. federal research regulations.

Justice

Conducting research in a way that distributes risks and benefits fairly across groups in society.

Respect for persons

A Belmont Report principle emphasizing participant autonomy and protection for those with reduced autonomy, often through informed consent.

Beneficence

Maximizing the benefits of research while minimizing harm to participants and society.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee responsible for reviewing research protocols for potential ethical problems.

APA Ethics Code

The APA’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, first published in 1953, containing about 150 specific ethical standards.

Consent form

The document used to obtain participants’ informed consent.

Deception

Misinforming participants about the study’s purpose, using confederates or phony equipment, or presenting false feedback about performance.

Debriefing (definition)

Informing research participants as soon as possible about the study’s purpose, revealing any deception, and correcting misconceptions.

What is APA Ethics Code 8.01

Institutional Approval

What is APA Ethics Code 8.02

Informed Consent to Research

What is APA Ethics Code 8.05

Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research

What is APA Ethics Code 8.06

Offering Inducements for Research Participation

What is APA Ethics Code 8.07

Deception in Research

What is APA Ethics Code 8.08

Debriefing