Theoretical debates in sociology

Science

• Set of principles that tells us to how to produce valid knowledge. It aims to base laws and theories on objective facts gained through observing phenomena.

• Something is scientific when it uses empiricism (knowledge gained from actually observing or measuring something) and objectivity (where the research does not involve opinions, bias or prejudice)

• To come up with empirical knowledge, experiments are carried out to test relationships between variables. Theories and laws are tested over and over again and by replication become accepted as scientific knowledge - they are reliable until falsified (proven wrong through more science)

Positivists suggest sociology can be a science

• Positivists believe that it is possible and desirable to apply the logic and methods of the natural sciences to the study of sociology to solve social problems and achieve progress.

• They suggest the subject matter of society is similar to natural science as it is objective and factual. This is because humans are seen to be reacting to external forces and human behaviour, like natural matter, has measurable causes and is predictable. For example, functionalists claim that cultural institutions such as religion and education restrict human behaviour through socialisation.

• Sociologists can follow the logic of natural science research by:

  • Producing quantitative data - using methods such as statistics and social surveys. For example, Durkheim made use of official suicide rates to establish a scientific and causal theory of suicide.

  • Being objective/value free

  • Testing a hypothesis formulated from a theory and gathering evidence to support it

Sociology can be a science - Comte

• Positivist

• Coined the term ‘sociology’

• Believes like the natural world, society is an objective factual reality

• Eg census

Sociology can be a science - Durkheim

• Ku: Sociology should study ‘social facts’ as things to observe and measure objectively. Aimed to discover scientific laws about how society works (in order to identify patterns of behaviour). Therefore, by understanding patterns of behaviour and these social laws we can predict future events.

• App: Durkheim on suicide - different levels of integration and regulation produce different rates of suicide - Protestants had higher rates of suicide due to weaker family bonds. Durkheim believed this was a social fact.

Evaluation of positivists (science)

• Interpretivists and postmodernists believe that this misunderstands the nature of society and human behaviour. While potassium will always react with water, humans will (within certain parameters) do as they please. They cannot be scientifically studied in the same way.

• Karl Popper argued that positivist sociology generally failed to be as scientific as it intended because it used inductive reasoning rather than deductive reasoning.

• Taking Durkheim’s study on suicide as an example, even other positivists criticise the reliability of his data and the scientific rigour of his method. The calculation of suicide rates between countries might have been inconsistent

Sociology should be a science

• Being scientific is desirable so that we can study and understand society:

  • It produces knowledge that is certain

  • The data can be generalised

  • It can establish laws of cause and effect

  • It can make predictions. For example, positivist researchers at the home office claim to be able to make predictions about patterns of victimisation because of their use of large-scale social surveys.

  • It can be replicated

  • It can gain date that is high in reliability

Sociology in its present form cannot be a science - Popper

• Popper agrees with Durkheim that sociology can be scientific and that it is a good thing for it to be considered as a scientific subject, however he rejects the inductive method

• Argues that in order to be scientific you must follow a process of ‘falsification’ - proving a theory wrong

• A theory that appears true is simply one that has withstood attempts to falsify it, eg all swans are white theory

• For a theory to be falsified, it must be open to criticism (open belief system)

• Closed systems on the other hand, such as religion, claim the ‘truth’

• App: Popper was critical of Marxism for predicting a proletarian revolution and the overthrow of capitalism, but not saying when it would happen. As a result, it is impossible to say definitively that Marxism has been falsified. For this reason, Marxism cannot be considered a scientific theory.

Interpretivists argue that sociology cannot be a science

• Do not think it’s possible or desirable for sociology to adopt the logic and methods of the natural world sciences because they’re unsuited to the study of human beings

• Humans, unlike matter, do not react in a casual like way to external forces and their behaviour cannot be predicted with certainty. Humans act in terms of feelings, meanings and emotions which are internal to them. Individuals are not puppets manipulated by external forces but autonomous beings who construct their social word through the meanings they give it.

• App: Eg Katz claims that crime is not simply caused by structural factors but guided by individual meanings such as the search for excitement and creating a reputation

• Not possible to follow scientific methodology:

  • No solid foundation on which to base a scientific sociology

  • Sociology is about discovering the meanings people hold

  • All research is inevitable subjective

  • Much of social life or alleged social facts are social constructions

Sociology cannot be a science - Kuhn

• Society is based on a paradigm - a set of shared assumptions, eg the world is round

• Sociology behaves like it is in the pre-science stage, there is no dominant perspective and there are lots of competing theories and perspectives, eg Marxists, feminists, functionalists

Sociology should not be a science - Anderson

• Ku: being scientific is not desirable because science causes harm

• App: military harm eg development of napalm used during Vietnam war, medical harm eg thalidomide scandal, political harm eg nazi experiments on humans

Should not want to be a science - postmodernists

• A scientific approach is dangerously because it claims a monotropy of the truth and therefore excludes other view points

• Science is a meta-narrative that attempts to explain the world

• All views are true for those who hold them

• We need to celebrate the diversity of opinions rather than impose our views on each other

• Anti foundationalism: there is no single truth, your ‘truth’ is as valid as the next persons truth, as neither can be proven either true or false

Social problem

Anti-social behaviour, gang culture, poverty, crime, excessive inequality, educational underachievement and family breakdown

Sociological problem

• A feature of social life that requires explanation, whether or not that aspect of social life is seen as a problem

• Eg Elias studied the development of good manners and Bennett studied the culture of different social classes, neither of which is seen as a social problem

Feminists view on society

Sees society as based on gender conflict, sees society based on patriarchy benefiting men at women’s expense.

Feminists: sociology should challenge patriarchal policies

• Ku: feminists argue that sociology has a vital role in highlighting gender inequalities and influencing policies that promote gender equality. They see sociology as inherently value laden and politically committed, aiming to uncover how institutions like the family, media and law reproduce patriarchy

• App: feminist research has led to a direct impact on social policy. For example, studies on domestic violence by sociologists such as dobash and dobash helped raise awareness of male violence and led to reforms like the introduction of women’s refugees, the Domestic Violence Disclosure Scheme (Clare’s law) and improvements in police training

• An: shows that sociology can challenge dominant norms and give voice to marginalised groups. Feminist research has led to changes in education (eg gender neutral curriculum), employment (equal pay act) and health services (eg better maternal care)

• Eval: however, radical feminists argue that most policy change is superficial and fails to dismantle the deep structures of patriarchy. Liberal feminist-informed policies may improve upon women’s legal rights, but critics suggest they often leave economic and cultural inequalities untouched

Feminists perspective linked to sociology

• Generally feminists see the state perpetuating women’s subordination through their social policies. For example, the state bases its policies on nuclear family so offers benefits to married couples and not cohabiting ones thus creating a self fulfilling policy by encouraging the nuclear family with traditional gender roles.

• Radical feminism has generally been too radical to have had much direct impact on mainstream political parties, but their social policy campaigns have had considerable influence, eg they’ve been responsible for highlighting domestic and sexual violence against women

• Liberal feminists have had considerable influence on social policies:

  • 1970 equal pay act and 2010 equality act

  • Changes to school curricula

  • The creation of women’s refuges for women escaping domestic violence

  • Voyeurism act - outlawed upskirting

Criticisms of feminists perspective on the role of sociology

• Marxist and radical feminists reject the view that these changes in law can liberate women. They both argue that society needs more far-reaching changes that the existing state cannot deliver

• Radical feminists would point out that women still earn less than men and are still responsible for most housework, despite liberal feminists effort . In addition, women continue to be portrayed as sex objects in the media and in popular culture more generally.

Marxists view on society

See society as divided by a fundamental conflict of interest in which the ruling capitalist class exploit the labour of the working class. The state represents the ruling class and its social policies serve the interests of capitalism, not society as a whole.

Marxist: sociology is critical of policy and often ignored by the state

• Ku: Marxists argue sociology reveals how social policies often serve ruling class interests by maintaining capitalism. They believe sociology should be critical of the state, not used to support it. They are sceptical about whether genuine social change can come through policy alone.

• App: laws like the 1944 Education Act appeared to promote meritocracy but arguably reproduced class inequality through the tripartite system. Sociological critiques of crime policy (eg Chambliss on selective law enforcement) also show how laws protect private property and elites.

• An: Marxists highlight the ideological role of social policy-suggesting reforms mask deeper exploitation. Sociology’s job, in their view, is to expose this and raise class consciousness.

• Eval: However, critics argue that rejecting all policy involvement can make sociology politically irrelevant. While Marxist critiques are valuable, their revolutionary focus can seem impractical or detached from the policy process.

Marxists perspective linked to social policy

• It represents the ruling class so its policies serve the interests of capitalism and not society as a whole. Social policy:

  • Is a tool of ideological control - providing the welfare state, for example, helps to mask failures of capitalism by making it appear that they care about the poor, sick and old. Such policies are, for Marxists, little more than a smokescreen to disguise the continuing exploitation of the proletariat. Policies are therefore a means of preventing revolution.

  • Maintains the labour force for further exploitation, eg the NHS keeps workers fit enough to work

• They see that reports like the black report are easily buried by capitalism. They will not carry out such recommendations as they put profits before human needs.

• Marxist perspectives have had relatively little influence upon social policies in the uk as they are often seen to be too extreme to be supported by the electorate. Nevertheless, they have had some limited influence on those on the left side of parties such as labour - for example Jeremy Corbyn as labour leader in 2015

Criticisms of Marxist perspective on the role of sociology

Their view is impractical and unrealistic. Social democrats criticise them for rejecting the idea that sociological research can bring about change in a capitalist system arguing that poverty research has had some positive impact on policy.

Functionalist and positivism view on society

Society is based on value consensus which is free from conflict

Functionalist and positivism - role of sociology

Comte and Durkheim advocated positivist approaches to studying society in order to discover social facts

Functionalist and positivism perspective linked to social policy

• Comte believes that scientific sociology could be used to promote progress and that sociologists could act like a “priesthood”, guiding government on how to make society better

• Durkheim believed that some degree of solidarity was desirable and advocated policies to increase the amount of social solidarity in contemporary societies and thereby reduce rates of suicide and crime

• Later functionalists, such as parsons, supported policies to promote nuclear families and to encourage competition and the desire for individual achievement in education

• Functionalists take a cautious approach, they tend to look at one issue at a time, this is called ‘piecemeal social engineering’

• Functionalism is often accused of having conservative bias, in that it tends to support the status quo, since institutions are generally seen as being vital for the efficient functioning of society

Criticisms of functionalist perspective on the role of sociology

Marxists criticise this piecemeal approach, they argue that issues in wider society need to be tackled before specific issues can be addressed, eg before you can produce an educational policy aimed at equalising opportunity for children from different classes, you need to tackle the bigger problem of inequality in society and bring about a change in the basic structure of society first

Neoliberalism and the new right view on society

• They believe that the state should have minimal involvement in society. They are opposed to the states involvement in the family, income support, education and health. They feel that this takes away people’s choices and sense of responsibility. This can lead to crime and delinquency.

• Murray argues that the welfare state gives ‘perverse incentives’, this weakens self-reliance and encourages a dependency culture

Neoliberalism and the new right perspective linked to social policy

• They want sociologists to come up with alternative policies to the existing ones. They want these new policies to restore the responsibility that the welfare state has taken away from individuals. They want individuals to take responsibility for their own and their family’s welfare rather than leaving it to the state

• In 2007 social justice policy group proposed a range of social policies aimed at the family:

  • Marriage preparation

  • Parenting classes

  • Tax relief and benefits for mothers who stay at home with their kids

• They see the role of social policy is to enable people to help themselves rather than have a welfare state do it for them. New right thinking can therefore be seen to be favoured by the conservatives and, more recently, new labour.

• Arguably these have had more effect on the policies of the uk governments than any other perspectives since the 1980s, influencing not only conservative governments but new labour governments of 1997-2010

  • Murray’s work theorising on an underclass has been very influential in the development of Conservative Party policies on welfare

• Policies relating to crime on both sides of the Atlantic have been influenced by the work of right realist criminologists such as Wilson and Kelling, who have advocated policies of zero tolerance

Criticisms of neoliberalism and the new right policy on the role of sociology

The quality of the data used in studies such as Murray’s have been questioned. They have also been criticised for not using sociological studies but using politically biased think tanks instead, eg the study breakdown Britain was produced by a think tank set up by Iain Duncan smith, former leader of the Conservative Party

Social democrats view on society

Society is based on inequality and conflict. Social democrats are politically left but not as extreme as Marxists.

Social democratic: sociology should influence reformist policy

• Ku: argues sociology should shape reformist social policy to reduce inequality and improve welfare. Sociologists like Townsend supported this approach by highlighting how the state can intervene based on sociological research.

• App: Townsend’s study of poverty used empirical research to define “relative deprivation” and showed that poverty persisted despite the welfare state. His work influenced debates around minimum income and social exclusion.

• An: links academic research to practical change, particularly in areas like health, education and income inequality. It shows how research can make social problems visible to policymakers.

• Eval: critics argue governments may ignore or selectively use sociological findings, especially if they challenge dominant ideologies. Marxists suggest that reformist policies are tokenistic and do not address the root causes of inequity - namely, capitalism itself.

Social democrats - role of sociology

Sociology researches social problems and make recommendations for policy that will get rid of inequalities in society

Social democrats perspective linked to social policy

• Policy needs to change the basic structure of society so that policies implemented will bring about more equality in society. Notable example:

  • Townsend researched poverty and recommended the government gave higher benefits to the poorest and spent more on welfare, education and health services

  • Black report looked at inequalities in health based on class - the report put forward 37 policy recommendations to reduce these inequalities (including free school meals). But there was a change in government before the report was published so none of the recommendations were implemented due to cost.

• Blair in particular supported the approach known as the third way which tried to combine left and right wing thinking. This approach was developed by the sociologist Giddens. During Blair’s premiership, sociology was able to influence social policies more than at other times, Albeit using an approach that was a hybrid of neoliberalism and social democracy. The third way was heavily criticised by those with more left-wing views, who argued that it was, in effect, a slightly watered-down version of neoliberalism.

Criticisms of social democrats perspective on the role of sociology

• Marxists criticise this approach as it does not feel it goes far enough. Marxists see capitalism as the problem and therefore policies need to abolish that. They use the way the conservative government used the black report as evidence that a capitalist as evidence that a capitalist state will never spend public money on improving the situation for the working classes.

• Postmodernists critics attempts by sociologists to influence policy due to their belief that all knowledge produced by research is only a version of the truth and therefore is not a satisfactory basis for policy.

Postmodernists and social policy: fragmentation and risk reduction

• Ku: Postmodernists argue that in todays fragmented, diverse society, there's no single truth for sociology to uncover-so influencing policy becomes harder. Late-modernists like Beck, however, see a role for sociology in managing new risks (eg. climate change, terrorism).

• App: Beck's concept of the "risk society shows how sociologists can inform government responses to global risks-like warning about the unintended consequences of technological change or pandemics. For example, sociological insights into social inequality and trust influenced public health campaigns during COVID-19.

• An: Late-modernists offer a realistic role for sociology: not grand theory, but helping navigate uncertainty and inform public debate. This allows sociology to stay relevant without pretending it can produce universal solutions.

• Eval: Postmodernists still caution that sociologists should avoid claiming authority- different groups will interpret knowledge differently, and policies may not benefit all equally. There's a danger of sociology being co-opted into technocratic governance

Factors on whether research effects policy - electoral popularity

• Government look for a big impact (vote winners) that will benefit the vast majority. Smaller scale research and policies to help minority groups are less likely to be acted on.

• App: difference feminists suggest that women’s experiences of patriarchy in society cannot be homogenised and to improve the lives of women more research is needed to find out each women’s experiences as it is unique. It could be argued that this is too micro of a perspective and will not lead to a large scale social policy

Factors on whether research effects policy - political interest groups and think tanks

• Governments are advised by think tanks and political interest groups who have a closer connection to decision makers than sociologists do

• App: for the last 20 years the think tank called policy exchange has been shaping social policy. Policy exchanges is comprised of experts in a wide range of areas including energy and environment, economics, technology, urban space, transport, international affairs, space and security policy.

Factors on whether research effects policy - globalisation

• Social policies are not just made my uk government. International government organisations have a larger impact on social policies than sociologists.

• The IMF is an international organisation with 190 member countries that work together to stabilise the global economy.

Factors on whether sociology influences research - critical sociology

Critical perspectives like Marxism are seen as too extreme to influence policy

Factors on whether sociology influences research - funding

• Sociologists look at ideal solutions that might not be practical for the government to introduce and therefore it’s unlikely that sociologists

• App: the black report investigated health inequalities in the uk. It gave 37 recommendations such as increasing child benefit, improve housing and agree minimum working conditions with unions. These were not implemented as it was too costly, and the health inequality targets were abandoned in 2011.

Giddens - 9 ways that sociology can improve our lives

• Providing an awareness of cultural differences and of others - seeing it from other perspectives

• Changing assumptions in society - McNeill notes that when sociological research is absorbed into common sense it can influence social policy

• Identifying social problems - sociologists who are free to explore many areas can highlight wider societal issues that are often ignored in policy, eg wider issues of gender inequality, influencing the sex discrimination and equal pay acts

• Providing self-awareness and understanding - reflexivity can improve lives, reflecting on domestic violence, or sex discrimination

• Providing a theoretical framework - Townsends research on poverty provided a framework for poverty, left and right realism a framework for crime

• Providing practical, professional knowledge - sociologists work everywhere not just universities and can provide valued input

• Providing the evidence - sociological research provides evidence naturally and policy makers can draw on this evidence

• Identifying the unintended consequences of policies - sociological research can evaluate policies

• Addressing the results - research can assess whether they have worked



Subjectivity

Judgement based on individual personal impressions, feelings and opinions rather than external facts

Objectivity

Judgement based on observable phenomena and uninfluenced by emotions or personal prejudice

Value freedom

• The notion that social research should not be influenced by the researchers beliefs and ideas (remain objective)

• It is particularly associated with the positivist approach in sociology

Value relevant

Sociologists choose topics based on their personal, cultural, or societal values - but most strive to be objective in their analysis

Value laden

We cannot escape our values and shouldn’t try to

Value committed

Sociologists must be committed and ‘pick a side’. They should help the underdogs in society.

Value free sociology

• Ku: Positivists like Comte and Durkheim argue that sociology can and should be value-free, modelled on the natural sciences. Researchers must remain detached, objective, and avoid letting personal beliefs influence the research process.

• App: For example, Durtheim's study of suicide used official statistics to identify social couses (such as anomie or weak social integration) behind what seemed to be an individual act. His aim was to uncover social laws governing behaviour, independent of personal values or moral judgments

• An: This scientific approach allows for the identification of broad social patterns and causes it enables sociologists to generalise findings and inform neutral, evidence-based policy-eg, using data to address rising suicide rates in different social groups.

• Eval: interpretivists argue that studying suicide through statistics Ignores the subjective meanings behind the act. They claim that official data (eg, coroners reports) may be influenced by cultural assumptions, making the dota value-laden. Furthermore, choosing which data to study and how to interpret it is never entirely objective, as values always shape the research process at some level.

Value relevant sociology

• Ku: Weber recognised that while researchers should aim for objectivity, it is impossible to keep all values out of the research process. He argued that values inevitably influence the choice of topic-what he called value relevance-but should not distort the data collection and interpretation stages. Researchers must be reflexive and transparent about their values while maintaining methodological rigour.

• App: For example, a researcher might choose to study gender inequality or climate change due to personal moral concerns. However, they can still ensure objectivity by applying consistent methods such as content analysis, peer review, or longitudinal surveys that limit bias and ensure replicability.

• An: Webers approach offers a balanced view-it accepts that values can inspire meaningful research, but emphasises professional standards to maintain credibility. This view is more realistic than the positivist claim that sociology can ever be fully value-free, given the human and moral nature of many social issues.

• Eval: However, critics such as Gouldner argue that the line between values and objectivity is blurry. Even methodological choices and interpretations can reflect underlying values, consciously or not. Moreover, feminist sociologists argue that striving for detachment may reproduce dominant power structures by ignoring the emotional and lived experiences of marginalised groups

Weber - when values are relevant

• When choosing what to research - values are important as they enable us to select which aspects of society to study in terms of their value relevance, eg feminists value gender equality and this leads them to study women’s oppression and research patriarchy

• When interpreting data - facts need to be set in the theoretical framework in order to understand their significance, and our theoretical perspective is influenced by our own values

• When deciding the use the findings of research are put to - sociologists are also citizens and cannot ignore the moral issues their work raises by stating value freedom as an excuse. Sociologists must take moral responsibility for their research.

Sociology is value laden - gouldner

• He states that it is neither possible nor desirable to keep values out of research.

• He agrees with Weber on the grounds that sociologists should take moral responsibility for their work.

• He argues that by the 1950s, sociology had evolved from a critical discipline, challenging the accepted authority to a 'spiritless' discipline, where sociologists would hire themselves out to organisations such as governments, businesses and the military to take on and solve their problems, rather than defining their own problems to investigate.

• Without values to guide their research, sociologists merely sold themselves as a service to the highest bidder e.g. as in the case of sociologists who have conducted market research designed to sell more cigarettes although well aware of the implications of cancer research.

When values are relevant - paymasters

• Ku: The institution may influence the way the research is carried out and can influence the outcomes, as they control the direction of the research as well as the questions asked and not asked etc. The sociologists work is likely to embody the value and interest of their paymaster (the government, charity etc)

• App: chapmans work critically examined the impact of tobacco advertising on smoking rates. His research was often funded by public health organisations and anti-smoking advocacy groups.

• An: critics argued that the funding source may have influenced the framing of the research and its conclusions, aligning with public health agendas

When values are relevant - career trajectories

• Ku: sociologists seek career progression to further their reputation and this can influence their choice of topic, the questions asked and how they interpret their findings. Some may even censor themselves for fear of being too outspoken which could harm their career.

• App: Durkheim aimed to establish sociology as a rigorous, scientific discipline distinct from psychology and philosophy. His study of suicide used statistical methods to demonstrate that even deeply personal acts could be explained by external forces. Some argue that his methodological choices and focus on positivism were influenced by his ambition to legitimise sociology within academia.

When values are relevant - personal beliefs

App: Oakley argued that empathy and involvement were essential in feminist research. Her personal belief in feminist principles shaped her methodology and interpretation. She conducted in depth, semi-structured interviews with women to explore their experiences and feelings about domestic labour.

Sociology should be value committed - Becker

• Becker states that all of sociology is influenced by values and this drives sociologists to take sides, even positivists. The decision in sociology is based around which side you are on.

• Traditionally, functionalists and positivists have been on the side of the powerful, the police and the government.

• Becker argues that sociology has a responsibility to support the underdog - the criminal, the mental health patient, etc. Little is known about these groups and therefore a new dimension of social reality can be uncovered.

• This is achieved by identifying with them through the use of qualitative methods such as participant observation which can reveal the meanings of these marginalised groups.

  • E.g. Goffman's study - The Moral Career of the Mental Patient. Instead of focusing on how powerful groups get to define and measure mental illness, Goffman examined the concept of mental illness through the eyes of mental patient. By doing this, bias toward the doctor's opinion is broken down and replaced with that of the patient - breaking down existing presumptions and definitions that positivists use to study society and being value committed to the 'underdog'.

    • Gouldner criticises Becker for taking a sentimental approach to the underdogs, accusing him of only being interested in those 'on their backs' (the misunderstood). He takes a Marxist perspective arguing that sociology should instead take the side of those who are 'fighting back'. Sociology should do more than describe the life of the disadvantaged; it should be committed to ending their oppression.