Chapter 6 - Keywords

memory

the ability to store and retrieve information over time

encoding

the process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory

storage

the process of maintaining information in memory over time

retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

semantic encoding

the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory

visual imagery encoding

the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures

organizational encoding

the process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items

mnemonics

encoding strategies that improve subsequent retrieval

sensory memory

a type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less

iconic memory

a fast-decaying store of visual information

echoic memory

a fast-decaying store of auditory information

short-term memory

a type of storage that holds nonsensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute

rehearsal

the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it

serial position effect

the observation that the first few and last few items in a series are more likely to be recalled than the items in the middle

chunking

combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory

working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage

long-term memory

a type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years

anterograde amnesia

the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store

retrograde amnesia

the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery

consolidation

the process by which memories become stable in the brain

reconsolidation

memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again

long-term potentiation (LTP)

a process whereby repeated communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier

retrieval cue

external information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind

encoding specificity principle

a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded

state-dependent retrieval

the process whereby information tends to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval

transfer-appropriate processing

the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match

retrieval-induced forgetting

a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items

explicit memory

when people consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences

implicit memory

occurs when past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection

procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or “knowing how” to do things

priming

an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus during an earlier study task

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

transience

forgetting what occurs with the passage of time

retroactive interference

situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier

proactive interference

situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later

absentmindedness

a lapse in attention that results in memory failure

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

blocking

a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it

memory misattribution

assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source

source memory

recall of when, where, and how information was acquired

false recognition

a feeling of familiarity about something that hasn’t been encountered before

suggestibility

the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections

bias

the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences

persistence

the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget

flashbulb memories

detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events