APES 4.1-4.6

Garcia Period 3 (2026-2027)

Inner Core

The inner most layer of the earth made up of iron and nickel, contributes to Earths magnetic field by spinning slightly faster, 9,000-13,000 degrees Fahrenheit.

Outer Core

Liquid, made up of iron and sulfur, protects earth from harmful solar radiation, generates earths magnetic field.

Mantle

Semi solid, made up of magnesium, iron, and silicate minerals.

Upper Mantle

Includes the asthenosphere (where convection currents occur) and part of the lithosphere (tectonic plates)

Convection Currents

when heat transfers between two fluids with significant temperature differences, done without external flow.

Lower Mantle

Denser and hotter then the upper mantle, where slower convection happens.

Crust

Solid and brittle, made up of oxygen, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, and potassium, includes continental crust and oceanic crust, part of the lithosphere (tectonic plates)

Soil composition

45% - Minerals (rock fragments)

5% - Organic Matter (decomposed plants and animals aka hummus)

25% - Water

25% - Air

Factors of Soil Formations

parent material (rock soil comes from), climate, topography (slope and drainage), organisms, time

O Horizon

Organic matter

A Horizon

organic material and minerals (topsoil)

E Horizon

Leaching zone (not always present)

B Horizon

Accumulation of leached materials (subsoil)

C Horizon

Least weathered parent material

R Zone

Bedrock

Soil Erosion

The removal of soil by water, wind, and human activity.

Causes of Erosion

deforestation, overgrazing, agriculture, urbanization

Effects of Erosion

Loss of fertile A Horizon, reduced agricultural activity, water pollution.

Conservation Strategies

Contour plowing (reduces runoff), terracing (slows water), cover crops (prevents erosion and provides nutrients), no till farming, windbreakers.

Composition of the Atmosphere

78% - Nitrogen

21% - Oxygen

0.93% - Argon

Very little of carbon dioxide and other elements and compounds.

Troposphere

Closest layer of the atmosphere to earth, where all weather happens, inverse relationship between temperature and altitude.

Stratosphere

Part of the ozone layer (absorbs most harmful UV radiation), direct relationship between temperature and altitude.

Mesosphere

coldest layer of the atmosphere, where meteors burn.

Thermosphere

Direct relationship between temperature and altitude, contain auroras and the ISS.

Exosphere

mostly made of up hydrogen and helium, goes into the rest of space.

Major Convection Cells

Hadley Cells (0-30 degrees), Ferrell Cells (30-60 degrees), Polar Cell (60-90 degrees).

Jet Streams

Fast air currents near the top of the troposphere

Albedo Effect

Reflectivity of surfaces (ice reflects, asphalt absorbs

Rain Shadow Effect

Mountains block rain so only one side is lush the other is dry.

Hadley Cells

Large-scale tropical atmospheric convection loops where warm air rises near the equator and descends at roughly 30° latitude

Ferrel Cells

Mid-latitude atmospheric circulation pattern that spans between 30° and 60° latitude in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres

Polar Cells

The smallest and weakest atmospheric circulation loop, spanning from 60–70° latitude to the poles in both hemispheres

Trade Winds

Winds found near the equator that blow east to west

El Nino

Weakens trade winds.

La Nina

Strengthens trade winds.

El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

A periodic shift in sea surface temperatures and atmospheric pressures in the tropical Pacific ocean.

Watershed

An area where all the water drains to a common body of water.

Headwaters

Where the water source begins

Tributaries

Smaller streams that feed into a large river

Main River Channel

The main body of the river system

Floodplain

Flat area text to the river that can flood during heavy rain.

Mouth

Where the river meets the ocean, lake, or sea.

Drainage Basin

Generally refers a larger area then a water shed.