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What can amino acids be precursors for?
Interconversion of amino acids, hormones, bile compounds, neurotransmitters, porphyrin ring of hemoglobin, creatine
How are amino acids used to generate ATP?
oxidized to make ATP needed for gluconeogenesis
Which level of protein structure is most susceptible to changes induced upon exposure to HCl?
Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary
How were human protein requirements determined?
Nitrogen balance studies, found median N required
Oxaloacetate →aspartate → ______ → alpha-ketoglutarate
glutamate
Essential amino acids are (MORE/LESS) efficiently absorbed than non-essential amino acids
more
Limiting amino acid
Amino acid that is lowest in concentration, once this amino acid runs out protein synthesis slows/stops
How does activation of AMPK affect mTOR and Protein Synthesis?
Inhibits
Where does the urea cycle occur?
Primarily in the liver, but also in the kidneys
Is the PDH complex reversible?
No
How does excess alcohol consumption increase fatty liver?
EtOH cannot be excreted, leads to increased triacylglycerol accumulation in the liver
True/False: The TCA cycle is involved in both energy requiring and energy generating processes
True
When comparing metabolic synopsis, what changes from day 3 and day 40 of not eating/fasting?
Brain utilizes ketones more than glucose, muscle protein degradation slows, liver outputs more ketone fuel than glucose
How does the nervous system coordinate with other systems to regulate metabolism?
Brain connection between body and environment
How does the endocrine system coordinate with other systems to regulate metabolism?
Hormonal control (Insulin, glucagon, etc.)
How does the vascular system coordinate with other systems to regulate metabolism?
Delivers nutrients via blood, waste removal, and hormonal transport
What are 3 criteria that can be used to diagnose someone with metabolic syndrome?
High plasma triglycerides, low HDL, high blood pressure
The carbon skeleton left after the deamination of an amino acid
Alpha ketoacid
Individual amino acids are absorbed by ___ in enterocytes
active transport
What is the name of a key enzyme that begins the process of protein hydrolysis?
pepsin
When the diet is lacking the amino acid glutamate, what happens?
Nothing/body will make it (nonessential amino acid)
When the diet is lacking the amino acid valine, what will happen?
Protein synthesis will stop once it is no longer available (essential amino acid)
What processes are activated in adipose tissue during the fed state?
Glucose uptake, lipogenesis, fatty acid storage
What processes are inhibited in adipose tissue in the fed state?
lipolysis
What processes are activated in skeletal muscle in the fed state?
glucose uptake, glycogenesis, protein synthesis
What processes are inhibited in skeletal muscle in the fed state?
glycogenolysis, proeolysis
What processes are activated in the liver in the fed state?
glycogenesis, lipogenesis, glycolysis, protein synthesis
What processes are inhibited in the liver in the fed state?
gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, ketogenesis
Ketone body synthesis _____ during starvation
increases
Ketone body synthesis happens in the ____
liver
Ketone bodies synthesized in the liver are for use by the ____
brain
Actions of insulin
protein synthesis, appetite regulation, glucose uptake
Is glutamine essential or non essential?
nonessential
What is one function of glutamine?
Regulates acid-base balance in the kidneys
What is required in order for protein synthesis to occur?
all amino acids and insulin
Where is alcohol metabolized?
liver
What would be one consequence of a diet with no dietary fat?
Hormonal imbalance/irregulation
What would be one consequence of a diet with no protein?
Kwashiorkor/muscle degradation
what are the median protein intakes for men/women?
100g/day for men; 65g/day for women
What are the essential amino acids?
tryptophan, valine, threonine, isoleucine, lysine, leucine, phenylalanine, methionine, histidine
What are the nonessential amino acids?
glycine, aspartic acid, asparagine, proline, glutamine, glutamic acid, arginine, cysteine, tyrosine, serine, alanine, ornithine, taurine
What must occur before amino acids can be used as energy?
Transamination (nitrogen removed/transferred)
Primary structure
polypeptide chain
secondary structure
number and sequence of amino acids and the chemical reactions of amino acids
tertiary
coiling of molecules and bonding within molecules
quaternary structure
involves two or more polypeptide chains
What determines the three dimensional structure of a protein?
primary structure
Where does protein digestion/absorption begin
stomach
What is the primary energy source for enterocytes?
glutamine
Overall scheme of urea cycle
five reactions convert ammonia, carbon dioxide, and the alpha-amino acid nitrogen of aspartate into urea
Concerns of excess protein intake
increased renal stress, bone demineralization, increased incidence of colon cancer, obesity
conditions linked to protein undernutrition
Kwashiorkor, PEM, Marasmus
What are the major metabolic pathways?
glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogen metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, amino acid metabolism
What are the 3 key junction points that coordinate the major metabolic pathways?
Glucose-6-phosphate, pyruvate, acetyl CoA
What is the center of metabolic control?
Liver
What are the 4 enzymes that regulate the TCA cycle?
PDH, CS, IDH, and alpha-KGDH
What is the key control point of glycolysis?
PFK: catalyzes the first unique and irreversible reaction
What causes metabolic syndrome?
Body becomes resistant to the effects of insulin
