AP Psychology Unit 3a: Developmental Psychology

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

lifespan

the length of time a person lives

nature v. nurture

the debate of weather you are shaped by your environment or genes

stability v. change

Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age?

continuous and discontinuous development

Continuous development sees our development as a cumulative process: Changes are gradual. On the other hand, discontinuous development sees our development as taking place in specific steps or stages: Changes are sudden.

cross-sectional research

a research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics

longitudinal research

A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed.

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

maternal illness

Many Illnesses contracted by Mother can be transmitted to Newborn

genetic mutations

Changes in the genetic material of cells that passes from one generation to another.

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

rooting

a reflex in which a newborn turns its head in response to a gentle stimulus on its cheek

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

critical periods

Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place

sensitive periods

time periods when specific skills develop most easily

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

primary sex characteristics

the body structures that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

menarche

the first menstrual period

spermarche

first ejaculation

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

sex

the biological distinction between females and males

gender

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

gender identity

our sense of being male or female

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

jean piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

reversibility

the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

animism

Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life.

egocentrism

the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

lev vygotsky

most famous for social development theory (of child cognitive development)

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

dementia

a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

semantics

Meaning of words and sentences

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

syntax

Sentence structure

cooing

early vowel-like sounds that babies produce

babbling

stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

overgeneralization

applying grammar rules in areas they don't apply ("I writed a story"; goed; comed)

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

ecological systems theory

views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment

microsystem

the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment

mesosystem

provides connections across microsystems

exosystem

social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development

macrosystem

consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources

chronosystem

historical changes that influence the other systems

parenting styles

authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

authoritative parenting

parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making

permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness

avoidance attachment

A style of attachment in which children act as if they are unconcerned about being separated from their mothers- These children may be showing the effects of repeated rejections in the past

anxious attachment

attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style

disorganized attachment

a type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return

separation anxiety

emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

monkey studies

Effort has a major effect in that by far the lowest level of performance in the entire study occurred in subjects required to expand a larger effort while at the same time seeing their partner receive a better reward

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

parallel play

activity in which children play side by side without interacting

pretend play

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one

adolescent egocentrism

the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents

imaginary audience

adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern

personal fable

type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm

emerging adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

psychosocial stages of development

To Erikson, eight successive stages encompassing the life span. At each stage, we must cope with a crisis in either an adaptive or a maladaptive way.

trust v mistrust

1st stage in Erikson's model; infants must learn to view the world as a predictable, safe place or face a future of guarded skepicism

autonomy v shame and doubt

2nd stage in Erikson's model; toddlers must be able to exercise some independence or will be ashamed and uncertain of their abilities

initiative v guilt

3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves

industry v inferiority

4th stage in Erikson's model; children must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior

identity v role confusion

5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction

intimacy v isolation

6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness

generativity v stagnation

7th stage in Erikson's model; in middle age, adults must discover a sense of contributing to the world or they may feel a lack of purpose