ap psych unit 7

motivation

need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. It is the interaction between nature (the bodily 'push') and nurture (the 'pulls' from our personal experiences, thoughts, and culture).

instinct theory

complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned. motivated by our evolutionary drives -- that is, instinctual behaviors that increase reproductive success become more frequent.

Drive-reduction theory

argues that motivation is tied closely with our physiological needs. This need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. 

\n **Primary Drives:** Food, water, etc. to ensure **homeostasis** of body.

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**Secondary Drives:** Assists primary drives - get a job (secondary drive) to purchase food (primary drive). 

Incentive theory

the "pull" from the external environment. It constitutes a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. 

* Heavily based on operant conditioning idea of 'reinforcement'.
* Examples: good grades (academic incentive), cash bonus (economic incentive), etc. 

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arousal theory

ur need to maintain an optimal level of arousal motivates behaviors that **meet no physiological need** (such as our yearning for stimulating and our hunger for information.) 

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

 a humanist psychologist, developed the --- saying that humans were motivated to meet their physiological needs first before high-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. 

stomach contractions

produces the feeling of hunger when contracted

glucose

form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues

lateral hypothalamus

stimulation of this structure stimulates hunger.

\-lesioning inhibits hunger

Ventromedial hypothalamus

stimulation of this structure inhibits hunger.

\-lesioning inhibits satiety signals

orexin

hunger-triggering hormone produced by the hypothalamus

Ghrelin

hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends signal to brain

insulin

hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose

leptin

protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decreases hunger

PPY

digestive tract hormonel sends “not hungry” signals to the brain

set point

weight range in which the body performs optimally, person stays without effort to gain/lose weight

basal metabolic rate

body’s resting rate of energy output (genetic)

obesity

body mass index measurement of 30 or higher

sexual motivation

nature’s way of making people procreate

testosterone

\-men and women have it

\-in males: stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period and development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

estrogen

sex hormone that contributes to female sex characteristics and is secreted in greater amounts by females than by males

\-peak during ovulation/drop during menopause

Kinsey scale

measurement of sexuality. Challenged idea that sexuality was either “straight” or “gay’ - __spectrum__

William Masters and Virginia Johnson

\-studied direct, observable behaviors of sex

\-recorded the physiological behaviors of volunteers

affiliation need

\-need to build relationships and feel part of a group and belong

\-==social identity==-feeling part of a group

ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

narcissism

personality trait in which people feel self-important, self-focused, and self-promoting

achievement motivation

desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery or skills or ideas and attaining a high standard

grit

\-passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term foals

emotions

response of the whole organism, involving physiological, arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious

James-lange theory

\-stimulus leads to arousal, leads to emotion

\-experience of emotions is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion--arousing stimulus

cannon-bard theory

\-body responses are too similar to cause different emotions

\-emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers

two-factory theory

physical arousal and cognitive appraisal. An emotional experience, they argued, requires a conscious interpretation of arousal

\-stirred up state can be experienced as one emotion of another, depending on how we interpret and label it

spillover effect

arousal spills over from one event to the next

__ex:__arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger

Joseph LeDoux - Pathway Model

sensory input may be routed to the cortex, via the thalamus for analysis

__High:__ Thalamus to brain’s cortex. Complex emotions, analyzed

__Low:__ Neural shortcut that bypasses the cortex. Simple emotions (likes, dislikes). Fear-provoking stimulus

Richard Lazarus

said that: brain processes vast amounts of information without conscious awareness. Emotions arise when we appraise an event as harmless or dangerous.

Appraisal: effortless, may not be conscious of it. It is still a mental function

Paul Eckerman

created __Facial Action Coding System__- a tool for measuring the movement of the muscles, which helps determine the emotion behind 5000 facial muscles

Facial Feedback Effect

tendency of facial muscles starts to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, and happiness

Display rules

rules that monitory the suppressing and acceptability of certain emotions

stress

the process by which we perceive and response to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

catastrophes

unpredictable large-scale events: earthquakes, floods, wildfires, storms

stressors

1. Catastrophes-unpredictable large-scale events: earthquakes, floods, wildfires, and storms
2. Significant life changes-live transitions, moving, divorce
3. Daily Hassles and Social Stress- dead cell phones, siblings, public speech

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approach-approach conflicts

two attractive but incompatible goals pull us

avoidance-avoidance conflicts

conflict between two undesirable alternatives

approach-avoidance conflicts

feel simultaneously attracted and repelled

Hans Selye’s General Adaption Syndrome

concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress

Phase 1: __alarm reaction__- sympathetic nervous system is suddenly activated. Heart rate zooms and blood is diverted to skeletal muscles

Phase 2: __resistance__-temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remains high

Phase 3: __exhaustion__-more vulnerable to illness or even death

tend-and-befriend response

under stress (mostly women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

health psychology

subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine

psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

B Lymphocytes

release antibodies that fight bacterial infections

T Lymphocytes

attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances

macrophage cells

identify, pursue, and ingest harmful invaders and worn-out cells

natural killer cells

attack diseased cells

coronary heart disease

clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle

Type A

competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

Type B

easy-going and relaxed people

catharsis

idea that “releasing” aggressive energy through action or fantasy relieve aggressive urges

aerobic exercise

sustained, oxygen-consuming exertion

mindful meditation

a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgemental and accepting way

Feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people’s tendency to be helpful when in a good mood

Martin Seligman

views happiness, studies human flourishing

positive psychology

scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life

adaption-level phenomenon

tendency to form judgements relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

relative deprivation

perception that one is worse off relative to whom one compares oneself

personality

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

psychodynamic theories

view human personality as a dynamic interaction between the conscious mind and unconscious mind, including associated motives and conflicts

preconscious

forces that drive a personality to operate under the surface. Below immediate conscious awareness

conscious

your sense of reality, smallest part of your mind but also The one you are most aware of

unconscious

beyond our awareness and where most of our action takes part

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy desires

ego

largely conscious, “executive”, part of personality that mediates among the demands of the if, superego, and reality. Ego operates on reality

superego

represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement (conscience) and for future aspirations

psychosexual stages

personality develops during infancy and childhood in five stages

defense mechanisms

\-ego protects itself from the competing forces of the id and the super ego

\-function indirectly and unconsciously just as the body unconsciously defends itself against disease

repression

process of reducing anxiety by blocking impulses or memories from consciousness

regression

ego seeks to reduce anxiety by reverting to an early period of psychological development

displacement

shifting impulses or aggressive impulses towards a more acceptable or less threatening object or person

reaction formation

switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites

projection

disguising one’s own threading impulses by attributing them to others

rationalization

self-justified explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one’s actions

sublimation

transferring of unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives

denial

refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities

Alfred adler

\-popular inferiority complex

\-behavior is driven by efforts to conquer inferiority feelings that trigger our strivings for superiority and power

Karen Horney

\-childhood anxiety triggers our desire for love and security

\-opposed Freud’s assumption about women

Carl Jung

__Collective unconscious__- collective, common reservoir of images or archetypes, derived from our species universal experiences. Ex: cross-cultural similarities in myths or legends

__Introvert and Extrovert__- invented inner/outer derived personality

projective tests

provide ambitious images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics

thematic apperception test

a test in which people express their inner feelings and interests though the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Rorschach inkblot test

most widely used projective test; a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing interpretations of the blots

terror-management theory

\-theory of death-related anxiety; explores people’s emotions and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death

carl rogers

innate drive towards reaching their full potential

real self- recognition and acceptance of one’s natural self

ideal self- emerges as the result of interactions with significant people in an individual’s life

Abraham maslow

embraced the basic “goodness” in human nature

__self-actualize__- helps people develop personality

traits

characteristic patterns of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in a certain way, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

eysencks

temperaments: extraverts/introversion - more/less stimuli

personality inventoris

objective questionnaire on which people response to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; asses selected personality traits

MMPI

developed to identify emotional disorders, used in employment situations to asses personality characteristics

\-asses work attitudes, family problems, and anger

social-cognitive perspective

views behaviors as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits and their social context

Albert bandora

proposed social-cognitive perspectives

reciprocal determinism

interacting influences of behavioral, internal cognition, and environment

self

assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and acctions

spotlight effect

overestimating others noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders