IB Psychology Notes

These flashcards provide a vocabulary review of the IB Psychology Notes.

Informed Consent

Ss should know general aim of study & their rights to agree to participate

Withdrawal

Ss should be allowed to leave experiment & ask for data to be removed at any time without punishment or loss of reward

Harm

Ss should not be subjected to any long-term and/or undue physical & mental harm (e.g. emotional distress, pain, etc.)

Debriefing

At end of study, Ss should be told full details of study including any deception necessary for experimental purpose & Rs should ensure Ss health & comfort

Replace

Where possible, replace testing on animals with other forms of experimentation.

Reduce

If it is necessary to use animal testing, reduce the number of animals used to the minimum necessary to complete the research.

Refine

Refine techniques used in animal testing to the point where minimal stress, harm & pain are caused, if any.

Random Sampling

Randomly selecting members of population (each member has equal chance of being part of sample)

Stratified Sampling

Splitting a group/population into its sub-groups, then randomly sampling Ss from specific categories (‘strata’) of population to form sample

Cluster Sampling

Randomly selecting Ss from a subset of the larger population to represent the larger population.

Purposive Sampling

Selecting specifically Ss likely to give relevant info based on study’s characteristics (i.e. what’s being studied)

Quota Sampling

Splitting a group/population into its sub-groups, then selecting Ss from those sub-groups to best fit the population and/or needs of the experiment

Snowball Sampling

Using existing Ss to help recruit additional Ss through own social networks

Convenience Sampling

Choosing Ss who are easily available to Rs for study (e.g. Psych undergrads)

Haphazard Sampling

Any other non-systematic method of sampling (e.g. anyone passing by a grocery store)

Independent Variable [IV]

The variable that’s changed in order to test a hypothesis.

Dependent Variable [DV]

The variable that’s observed/measured, in order to support or disprove a hypothesis.

Controlled Variable [CV]

Variables which the researchers control in order to reduce unwanted changes or effects to the DV.

Extraneous Variable [EV]

Variables which may adversely impact the manipulation of the IV, and/or the measurement of the DV.

Internal Validity

How much does the experiment’s procedure or findings actually allow you to draw conclusions about the effect of the IV on the DV?

External Validity

How much can the experiment’s findings be generalized beyond the experiment itself?

Ecological Validity

A type of external validity which looks specifically at how much a study’s findings can be applied to the real world

Population validity

How well a study’s findings can be generalized to the population it studies (linked with sampling/sampling bias)

Historical validity

How well a study’s findings can be generalized across time periods

Laboratory (Lab) Experiments

An experiment conducted in a controlled environment. The researcher manipulates the IV to (hopefully) cause a change on the DV.

Field Experiments

An experiment that is conducted in a natural environment, where the researcher manipulates the IV.

Natural Experiments

An experiment conducted in a natural environment, where the researcher observes naturally occurring changes in an IV, and measures their effect on the DV. The researcher does not manipulate any variables.

Quasi-Experiments

Comparing Ss based on differences in pre-existing variables (e.g. gender, age).

Statistical Significance

The likelihood that an experiment’s results (a correlation, a difference between groups, etc.) indicate a causal relationship, as opposed to simply having happened by chance.

Null hypothesis

Says that there is no relationship between the IV and DV.

Research hypothesis

A prediction, usually based on existing evidence & theories, that there is a relationship between the IV & DV.

Correlation Coefficient

Represents the strength of a linear relationship and is represented by r, a number which ranges 1 to -1.

Credibility

The qualitative ‘version’ of internal validity—i.e. do findings reflect reality of Ss’s experiences or the situation being studied?

Triangulation

Combining diff approaches of investigation.

Rapport

Having a good relationship with Ss, ensuring their responses are voluntary (unforced) & honest (true: no lying, demand characteristics, social desirability bias, etc.

Iterative Questioning

Rephrasing then re-asking questions later to prevent Ss from distorting data intentionally/unintentionally.

Reflexivity

Rs reflecting on how subjectivity/bias might influence their findings.

Credibility Checks

Ensuring interpretations are correct by sharing data, observations, transcripts, etc. with Ss & asking if accurate

Acquiescence bias

Tendency to give +ve answers, regardless of the question

Social desirability bias

When Ss respond in a socially acceptable way, rather than giving actual, honest responses

Confirmation bias

When Rs have prior beliefs & uses research unintentionally to confirm it; may influence question wording, Rs’s behavioral nuances

Dominant respondent bias

In group setting, when one Ss influences behavior/responses of others, e.g. hijacking talking time, intimidating others, etc.

Sensitivity bias

Tendency of Ss to distort responses on questions with sensitive subjects, giving incorrect info to hide secrets

Leading questions

When Rs/E’s wording of a question unconsciously encourages Ss to answer a certain way

Order effects

When responses to an earlier question influence Ss responses to later questions

Sampling bias

When sample isn't adequate for research's aims (e.g. due to convenience sampling, 'professional Ss')

Biased reporting

When some findings of study aren't equally reported (e.g. Rs only briefly mentioning evidence that doesn't fit their conclusion)

Sample-to-population generalizability

Applying findings to a wider population

Case-to-case generalizability

Applying findings to other situations/contexts (esp similar ones)

Theoretical generalizability

Applying findings to broader theories

Core Concepts of Biological Approach

There are biological correlates of behavior., behaviors can be inherited, as we know more about the human genome, we will/should eventually know how specific genes relate to specific behaviors, and Animal research can provide insight into human behaviors

Autopsies

Examining the brains of corpses (animal or human, especially with neurological disorders) for structural differences from the norm

Selective Destruction

Destroying specific parts of brains of live patients & seeing resulting behavioral effects

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Structural brain imaging technology that Uses magnetic fields to cause nuclei in brain to emit varying radio waves (detected & processed) and Produces 2D/3D static representation of brain structure; can ‘slice’ open brain digitally to see internal structure

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Functional brain imaging technology that Uses magnetic fields to cause nuclei to emit radio waves, takes multiple snapshots & observes difference between regions with high vs low oxygen-rich blood flow and Produces 2D/3D video representation of brain activity over time.

Strict Localization

Specific parts of the brain are solely responsible for specific functions

Holism

Functions of the brain are the result of the brain working as a whole, not specific regions.

Relative Localization

Specific parts may be responsible for certain functions but not exclusively; other parts may also assist in the functioning

Neuroplasticity

Ability of brain to adapt/change due to experience (environmental changes, learning, practice, etc.) physically

Neurotransmitters [NTs]

Chemical ‘messengers’ made by body, sent between neurons (through synaptic cleft) allowing neurotransmission to occur.

Reuptake

Reabsorbed by presynaptic neuron for future use

Hormones

Chemicals released by glands in the body to regulate medium & long term changes in the body (e.g. mood, attention, etc.)

Pheromones

broad term for chemical communication between members of a species, for example for the purpose of mating

Gene

Part of DNA responsible for the synthesis of particular proteins that may result in a specific trait or behavior

Genotype

Specific set of variants of a gene present in one’s DNA

Phenotype

Individuals characteristics like traits, appearance, or behavior

Monozygotic [MZ] twins

Share 100% of their genotype with each other

Dizygotic [DZ] twins

Share ~50% (average) genotype with each other

Theory of Evolution [ToE]

Posits organisms driven by need to survive & reproduce

Animal Research Advantages

Humans & animals are biologically & behaviorally similar and Rs can investigate animals over entire lifespans/generations

Animal Research Limitations

Similarity =/= same; animal research can’t necessarily be generalized to humans, animals may behave differently to humans despite biological similarities, animals can’t communicate their responses, we can only observe them, and ethical considerations must still be considered for animals

Cognitive Approach Core Concepts

Mental processes can be studied scientifically, mental representations guide behavior, cognitive processes do not function in isolation, and biases in cognition can be systematic and predictable.

Multi-Store Model of Memory [MSM]

Modular information processing model of encoding, storage, & retrieval of memory

Sensory Memory [SM]

Unlimited capacity, very short duration (<1s)

Short-Term Memory [STM]

Limited capacity (~7 ±2 items), short duration (<1min)

Long-Term Memory [LTM]

Unlimited capacity & duration

Working Memory Model [WMM]

Develops concept of ‘short-term memory’ to include diff modalities of storage (i.e. different types of info processed/stored differently) with concept of Working Memory [WM] consisting of several stores/mechanisms all interacting with each other

Central Executive

‘Manager’ of WM; responsible for controlling attention & resource allocation between all other components of WM

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Stores visual and spatial info

Phonological Loop

Stores auditory info

Episodic Buffer

Integrates info from visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop into episodic memories for storage in LTM

Schema Theory

Attempts to explain how humans actively process info in relation to existing knowledge.

Top-Down Infomation Processing

Using existing knowledge to interpret/process info thru our own ‘cognitive lens’; schemas play a role in this

Bottom-Up Infomation Processing

‘Pure’ info processing based on the info as-is witho bias or influence

Schemas

Cognitive structures derived from past experiences that provide a framework for organizing info.

Thinking

Using information & processing it somehow (e.g. making a decision)

Decision Making

Cognitive process of choosing a belief or action/behavior from multiple possible choices based on the preferences of the decision maker

Normative Model of Decision Making

Ideal models, what thinking should be; formal logic/syllogisms

Descriptive Model of Human Decision Making

Realistic models of human decision making/thinking processes

Theory of Reasoned Action/Planned Behavior [TRA/TPB]

A descriptive model of decision making looking at how behavioral choice is influenced by one’s attitudes.

Attitude (TRA/TPB)

One’s individual/own perception of a behavior (+ve or -ve)

Subjective Norms (TRA/TPB)

One’s perception of how socially acceptable the behavior is (+ve or -ve)

Perceived Behavioral Control (TRA/TPB)

Whether or not one believes they are capable of carrying out a behavior (added by TPB)

Reconstructive Memory

Memory is an active reconstructive process, not passive storage & recall.

Cognitive biases

Systematic deviations from normative/rational thinking.

Framing Effect (Prospect Theory)

When options are proposed with no logical difference, how they are framed (described based on a reference point) influences choice made between them (e.g. whether options described as loss or gain)

Asymmetric Dominance

Tendency to focus on an option that clearly dominates an decoy despite fact that decoy should have no impact on the ‘actual best’ option

Flashbulb Memory Theory [FMT]

Posits that flashbulb memories [FMs], are Formed from surprising & highly emotionally arousing info, Maintained through overt (public; with others) & covert (internal) rehearsal, are more vivid & more reliable/accurate (last longer) than other memories, and Use a specialized neural mechanism in the brain (separate system of memory).

Digital Gaming With Spatial Elements

Digital gaming with spatial elements, e.g. first-person shooters/FPSs, simulation software, etc.

Induced Media Multitasking

Switching between various tasks constantly rather than focusing on one at a time; recent phenomenon induced by digital media