AP Pysch 2.2-2.8

Cognition

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Metacognition

cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes

Metacogniton example

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow). We form most concepts using this

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accomodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas. Robert proposed creativity involves expertise

Convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

Intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior

Algorithims vs heuristics

Algorithms are systematic problem-solving procedures, exemplified by "Bubble Sort" for arranging elements. Heuristics are general strategies, like "nearest neighbor" in the traveling salesman problem, offering efficient solutions without guaranteeing optimality.

Algorithim

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrats with usually speedier-but also more error prone - requires time and effort

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms - like a shortcut

Insight

a sudden and often novel realization (Aha moment) of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions- temporal lobe

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Representativeness Heurisitc

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information

Availability Heurisitc

judging a situation based on personal perspective or judging based on the most available information in memory (perhaps vividly)

Overconfidence

tendency to be more confident than correct-to overstimulate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

Hindsight bias

I knew it all along phenomenon

belief perserverance

persistence of one's initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one's belief is discredited; tendency to cling to our beliefs in face of contary evidence

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. Subtle differences in in presentation can dramatically alter our responses and nudge us toward beneficial decisions

Nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions

Stereotypes

widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group

Prototypes vs Stereotypes

Gambler's Fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier Ex: a fill-in-the-blank test.

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned Ex: as on a multiple-choice test

Relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

Storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage aka remembering

Sensory Memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system ( 1st step of multi store model)

Short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items that is later stored or forgotten Ex: (such as digits of a phone number while calling)

Long-term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Working Memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory - basically between short and long term memory

Parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Effortful Processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort - can ecode explicit memories

Central Executive

a memory component that coordinates the activites pf phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory info

Visuospatial sketchpad

a memory compoenent that briefly holds info about object appearence and location in space

Neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons in reponse to excersise, sleep, and nonstressful but stimulating environments

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

Implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

Explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

Iconic memory vs echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli for no more than a few tenths of a second vs a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli that can be recalled within 3-4 seconds

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information Ex:

Misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information has distorted one's memory of an event - way may misremember what we have seen or heard after exposure to misleading/false info

Shallow processing vs Deep processing

Shallow: encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words and trying to encode this way will lead to poor retention - using rehearsal

Deep: encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention so to remember something: ADD MEANING - ESPECIALLY IF IT TELLS A STORY, RELATE IT TO A PLACE, OR ADD EMOTION

Self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

Method of LOCI

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

Semantic Memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

Episodic Memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. memories not permantally stored in hippocampus but brain registers and temporarily holds the elements inside; damage to this disrupts formation and recall of explicit memories

Memory Consoldiation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

Cerebellum

processes implicit memories and seems to store prodecdural memory and classicsally condtioned memory

Amygdala

associated with storage of emotional memories (exciting, traumatic, sad); damage to it ...

Thalamus

involved in encoding sensory memory into the short-term memory

Flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Basal gangalia

implicit memories- faciliate formation of our prodecural memories for skills

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response Ex: adults or children primed with money related words or actions change their behavior in such as materialism, self interest, and less helpful

Mood Congruent Memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood Ex: if you had a bad day then you may recall other bad times youve had

State Dependent Memory

what we learn in one state may be easily remembered when your in that state again - hiding something while drunk and remembering where you hid that item when your drunk again

Proactive Interference vs Retroactive Interference

Proactive- Occurs when information or exp. already stored in long-term memory hinder the ability to remember newer information. (old disrupts new)

Retroactive- happens when new learning interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information. (new disrupts old)

Retrograde Amnesia vs Anterograde Amnesia

Retrograde Amnesia is the inability to remember previously stored memory - past episodic information (The Winter Solider)

Anterograde Amnesia is the inability to form new memories / material (50 first dates)

Source Amnesia

the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been learned from, while retaining the factual knowledge

retrieval cues

stimuli that help gain access to memories (Passwords)

Serial Position Effect

our tendency to recall best the last (Recency)and first items in a list (Primacy)

Interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics.( switching between sections, chapters, or lectures when studying)

Encoding failure

the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory

Retrieval failure

although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed - leads to forgetting

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Deja Vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

Reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Storage Decay

poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay

Elaborative rehearsal

connecting new information with your own specfic examples to your life to remember it

Maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

Example: reciitng words and defintions multiple times to be able to memorize it for a short while