PSYCH 207 QUIZ UOA

Major Research Methods in Personality Psychology

Case Studies (in-depth, low generalisability), Correlational (relationships, no causality), Experimental (cause-effect, lab-based).

HEXACO Trait linked to Openness to Experience & Rehabilitation Beliefs

People higher in openness were more likely to believe in rehabilitation of sex offenders and less likely to support public offender registries.

Dunedin Study (Caspi & Silva, 1995)

Longitudinal NZ study showing that temperament at age 3 predicted self-reported personality traits at age 18 (e.g., under-controlled kids became impulsive adults).

Types of Personality Data

• L-Data: Life records (e.g. school or criminal history)

• O-Data: Observer reports (e.g. parent or teacher)

• T-Data: Test data from tasks or experiments

• S-Data: Self-reports from surveys or questionnaires

CATTS (Goals of Personality Theorists)

Comprehensive, Applications (practical use), Testable, Theory that’s Systematic, Scientific observations.

Distinctive Dispositions

Traits that make someone unique from others; not universal, but personal patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour.

Enduring Dispositions

Traits that remain relatively consistent across time and situations (e.g. always shy or always curious).

Structure in Personality Theory

The “what” of personality: the basic units (like traits or types) and how they’re organised (fixed, fluid, or hierarchical).

Personality Development

The “how”: explains how personality forms through biological, environmental, and social influences across time.

Personality Processes

The “why”: focuses on motivations, emotions, and behaviours that change over time and explain actions.

What is the Topographical Model of the mind?

It’s Freud’s early theory that divides the mind into the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious, where the unconscious contains repressed thoughts and influences our behaviour without our awareness.

What is the Structural Model of the mind?

It’s Freud’s later theory that divides the mind into the Id (instincts), Ego (reality), and Superego (morality), which are in constant conflict and shape our personality.

What is the role of the Id?

The Id is the unconscious, instinctual part of the mind that seeks immediate pleasure, regardless of reality or morals.

What is the role of the Ego?

The Ego is the rational part of the mind that balances the demands of the Id and Superego using the reality principle.

What is the role of the Superego?

The Superego is the moral part of the mind that internalises societal rules and creates guilt when we go against them.

What are defence mechanisms?

They are unconscious strategies used by the Ego to reduce anxiety from internal conflict between the Id and Superego.

What is displacement?

Displacement is redirecting your emotions from the real source to a safer target.

What is sublimation?

Sublimation is channelling unacceptable impulses into acceptable or even creative activities.

What does Freud mean by unconscious motivation?

Our behaviour is influenced by thoughts, desires, or fears we are not aware of, often rooted in childhood.

What is a fixation in psychosexual development?

Fixation is when unresolved conflict in a stage causes a person to remain psychologically stuck there, shaping adult personality traits.

What is the oral stage associated with?

Dependency and comfort from feeding—fixation here can lead to clinginess or overeating.

What is the anal stage associated with?

Control and order during toilet training—fixation can lead to obsessiveness or messiness.

What is the Oedipus complex?

The child unconsciously desires the opposite-sex parent and sees the same-sex parent as a rival, leading to anxiety and the development of the Superego.

What is Erikson’s stage of Identity vs. Role Confusion?

A psychosocial stage in adolescence where the individual must form a stable sense of self or experience confusion about their identity.

What are unconscious phantasies (scripts)?

They are hidden beliefs or patterns from early relationships that unconsciously guide how we behave and feel in the present.

What does psychoanalysis suggest about personality?

That it is shaped by unconscious conflict, early relationships, and the defences we use to manage inner tension.

What is ‘castration anxiety’?

A boy’s fear that his father will punish him (by castration) for desiring his mother, which leads him to identify with his father and internalise his moral values.

What is ‘penis envy’?

Freud’s controversial idea that girls desire a penis, become disappointed in their mother, and shift their affection toward their father, identifying with female powerlessness.

What is fixation in psychosexual development?

When a person gets stuck at a developmental stage due to unresolved conflict, influencing adult personality traits.

What traits are linked to oral fixation?

Neediness, mistrust, dependency, overeating, or smoking.

What traits are linked to phallic fixation?

Competitiveness, flirtatiousness, seductiveness, or an emphasis on success and attention.

What is Bowlby’s internal working model?

A mental blueprint formed in early childhood that guides future expectations of self, others, and relationships.

What is the Strange Situation?

A structured observation where infants are separated and reunited with their caregiver to assess attachment style.

What is secure attachment?

The child is distressed when the caregiver leaves but comforted when they return; associated with responsive caregiving.

What is insecure avoidant attachment?

The child shows little distress at separation and avoids the caregiver’s return; linked to emotionally distant caregiving.

What is insecure resistant (anxious-preoccupied) attachment?

The child is very distressed at separation and ambivalent on return; linked to inconsistent caregiving.

What is disorganised attachment?

A child shows confused, conflicted, or fearful behaviour; linked to trauma, neglect, or abuse.

What is Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis?

The idea that prolonged separation from a primary caregiver can lead to emotional and relationship difficulties.

What are criticisms of Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis?

It reinforces gender stereotypes, ignores quality of care, and overlooks resilience and other caregivers.

What are adult attachment styles?

Patterns of relating in adult relationships that reflect childhood attachment: secure, anxious (preoccupied), or avoidant (dismissive).

What is an anxious (preoccupied) adult attachment style?

Craves closeness but fears rejection; may be clingy, jealous, and sensitive to feedback.

Can attachment styles change over time?

Yes — they can shift through therapy, relationships, and self-awareness.

What is the core belief of humanistic psychology?

That people are inherently good and have an innate drive toward personal growth and self-actualization.

What is phenomenology in humanistic psychology?

The idea that reality is shaped by each individual’s subjective experience and perception.

What is existentialism’s influence on humanistic psychology?

It emphasizes free will, personal responsibility, and creating one’s own meaning in life.

What is the organismic valuing process?

Our natural inner guide that helps us evaluate experiences based on whether they help or hinder our personal growth.

What is unconditional positive regard?

Accepting and valuing someone for who they are, without judgment or conditions.

What are conditions of worth?

Messages we receive from others that make us feel we must act a certain way to be loved or accepted.

What is congruence in humanistic theory?

When a person’s real self and ideal self align, leading to authenticity and well-being.

What is incongruence in humanistic theory?

When there is a mismatch between the real self and ideal self, resulting in inner conflict and distress.

What are the two main defences against incongruence?

Denial (ignoring the experience) and perceptual distortion (reshaping the experience to protect self-image).

What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

A motivational theory that states people must meet basic needs before pursuing self-actualization.

What are self-actualized people like, according to Maslow?

They accept themselves and others, are creative, spontaneous, and resistant to social pressures.

What is the humanistic view of education?

Learning should be student-centered, foster curiosity, and support individual expression.

What is the humanistic view of therapy?

Therapy should be person-centered, non-directive, and based on empathy and unconditional positive regard.

What is a major criticism of humanistic psychology?

Its concepts are often too vague and difficult to measure scientifically.

What is another limitation of humanism in clinical settings?

It may not be effective for severe mental health issues like schizophrenia or antisocial disorders.

What two philosophies influenced Humanistic Theory?

Phenomenology (subjective experience is central) and Existentialism (individuals create their own meaning and take responsibility for their lives).

What cultural context contributed to the rise of Humanism?

The 1960s counter-culture movement, which emphasized freedom, authenticity, and rejecting societal norms and authority.

What does the "Third Force" refer to in psychology?

Humanism, developed as an alternative to psychoanalysis (first force) and behaviorism (second force).

What are the core tenets of Humanistic Psychology?

• Humans have an inherent potential for growth

• People must be understood holistically

• Subjective experience and reasoning matter

• Each person is unique

• We have the capacity to act with intention (agency)

• We construct personal meaning (including spiritual meaning)

• Respect for others’ perspectives is essential

• Emphasizes equality, democracy, and social justice

What is the 'self' in Carl Rogers’ theory?

The organized set of perceptions and experiences a person has about who they are.

What is organismic valuing?

The natural, internal process of evaluating what experiences feel right, beneficial, or harmful.

What is unconditional positive regard?

Accepting and valuing a person without conditions, regardless of their behavior, thoughts, or feelings.

What are conditions of worth?

Expectations or judgments from others that make us feel we must act a certain way to be accepted or valued.

What is congruence in Rogers’ theory?

When the real self and ideal self are closely aligned, leading to authenticity and psychological well-being.

What is incongruence?

When there is a gap between the real self and ideal self, leading to anxiety, confusion, or low self-worth.

What is the Q-sort method?

A research tool where individuals sort descriptive statements about themselves into categories, helping assess their real and ideal self.

What is Trait Theory?

A theory of personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring consistent patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion.

Who was Gordon Allport and what did he propose?

An early trait theorist who identified 4,504 personality-describing words and proposed three trait levels:

• Cardinal Traits (dominant, rare)

• Central Traits (common, general descriptors)

• Secondary Traits (situational, less influential)

What was Raymond Cattell's major contribution to trait theory?

Used factor analysis to reduce Allport’s traits to 16 core personality factors, creating the 16PF Questionnaire.

What are the 3 supertraits in Hans Eysenck's PEN Model?

• Psychoticism: Aggression, impulsivity, antisocial traits

• Extraversion: Sociability, energy

• Neuroticism: Emotional instability, anxiety

What biological explanation did Eysenck propose for personality traits?

Introverts have higher brain arousal and avoid stimulation; extraverts have lower arousal and seek stimulation.

What is the Lemon Juice Test and what does it show?

A test showing introverts salivate more in response to lemon juice, indicating greater sensitivity to stimulation.

What does it mean that traits exist on a spectrum?

Each trait is measured on a continuum from low to high rather than being all-or-nothing.

What does the HEXACO model add to the Big Five?

A sixth trait: Honesty-Humility, which includes sincerity, fairness, and modesty.

What is factor analysis and how is it used in trait theory?

A statistical method used to identify clusters of related traits and group them into broader personality dimensions.

What does it mean that personality traits are hierarchical?

Broad traits (like extraversion) are made up of more specific, narrower traits (like sociability or talkativeness).

Are traits stable over time?

Generally stable in adulthood, but can shift due to life experiences or aging (e.g., Maturity Principle).

What is the Maturity Principle in trait theory?

As people age, they tend to become more conscientious and emotionally stable.

What do twin studies suggest about the heritability of traits?

Personality traits are about 40–60% heritable, with identical twins being more similar than fraternal twins.

What is a trait?

A trait is a consistent pattern in the way individuals think, feel, and behave. Traits exist on a continuum from low to high and are normally distributed in the population.

What is the nomothetic approach in trait theory?

It focuses on identifying general laws of personality by studying traits across populations, rather than focusing on individual uniqueness.

What does trait theory aim to do?

Describe, predict, and measure personality differences using fixed tools applied to all people.

What was the lexical hypothesis?

The idea that important aspects of human personality are encoded in language. If traits are significant, they will be represented in words.

Who originally proposed the lexical hypothesis?

Francis Galton.

What was the ‘Decade of Doubt’ in trait theory?

A period in the 1960s–70s when trait theory was heavily criticised and almost disappeared due to arguments that situations, not traits, explain behaviour.

Who criticised trait theory and what did they argue?

Walter Mischel argued that situations trump traits and behaviour varies too much across contexts. Albert Bandura introduced reciprocal determinism, claiming personality and environment interact to shape behaviour.

What was the response to the situationist critique?

Funder, Ozer, and Epstein argued that both traits and situations explain only about 10% of behaviour (correlation of 0.2–0.3). Behaviour = Personality + Situation + their interaction.

When are traits more likely to be expressed?

In familiar, informal, private settings with few instructions, greater choice, and longer duration.

What does factor analysis do in trait theory?

It reduces large sets of traits into clusters (factors) by identifying correlations between traits across populations.

What is the Five Factor Theory’s strongest claim?

Traits are universal psychological structures, biologically based, and not influenced by environment. They causally influence development.

How did Costa and McCrae originally view trait stability?

They claimed traits became stable by age 30 and did not change afterward.

What is the difference between emic and etic approaches in cross-cultural research?

Etic: Assumes traits are universal, translates existing tools.
Emic: Builds trait models from within a specific culture or language.

What is psychopathy?

A personality disorder marked by a lack of empathy, shallow emotions, manipulativeness, and impulsivity. It is not officially in the DSM-5-TR but is assessed using the Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (PCL-R). Unlike ASPD, traits like lack of empathy do not typically decrease with age.

Why is psychopathy considered distinct from Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD)?

Because psychopathy includes unique affective and interpersonal traits (e.g., lack of empathy, superficial charm), while ASPD focuses more on observable antisocial behaviour (e.g., deceitfulness, aggression, law-breaking).

What is the Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (PCL-R)?

A clinical tool used to assess psychopathy. It has 20 items, rated by a trained clinician based on interviews and records. It includes two main factors: interpersonal/affective traits and antisocial/lifestyle traits.

Why is the striatum important in psychopathy?

Because structural abnormalities in the striatum are linked to impulsive and reward-driven behaviours often seen in individuals with psychopathy.

What role does the amygdala play in psychopathy?

Reduced volume or abnormal functioning in the amygdala is associated with poor emotional processing, a lack of fear, and reduced empathy in psychopathy.

Why is the anterior insula relevant in psychopathy?

Because it helps with emotional awareness and empathy. Structural and functional abnormalities here are linked to callous–unemotional traits.