AP Pysch Unit 4

Dispositional attribution

the tendency to explain someone's behavior by attributing it to their inherent characteristics (like personality, beliefs, or abilities)

situational attribution

when an individual's behavior is attributed to factors in the environment.

explanatory style

how people explain to themselves why they experience a particular event,

(positive or negative)

actor/observer bias

a cognitive bias where people tend to attribute their own actions to situational factors (pressure/ circumstances), while attributing others' actions to internal factor (characteristic).

fundamental attribution error

the tendency people have to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in judging others' behavior

self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute our successes to internal, personal factors, and our failures to external, situational factors

internal locus of control

the belief that individuals have control over their own actions and outcomes in life, meaning they believe their choices and efforts directly influence the results they experience.

external locus of control

the belief that external factors, such as fate, luck, or other people, are primarily responsible for life's outcomes

mere exposure effect

the belief that a repeated exposure to a stimulus, whether a person, object, or idea, leads to an increased liking or preference for it.

self-fulfilling prophency

the belief that something happens because we expect it to happen

downward social comparison

the tendency to compare oneself to individuals or groups who are perceived as less fortunate or worse off, often to enhance one's own self-esteem or self-image.

upward social comparison

we compare ourselves with those who we believe are better than or superior to us

stereotype

a fixed, oversimplified, and often biased belief about a group of people

just-world phenomenon

 The tendency to believe that the world is fair and that people get what they deserve leading to a tendency to blame victims for their misfortune

out-group homogeneity bias

the tendency to assume that the members of other groups are very similar to each other

in-group bias

the tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others who belong to the same group that they do.

ethnocentrism

the tendency to view own’s culture as superior

confirmation bias

the tendency to search, interpret, and recall information in a way that aligns with our pre-existing values, opinions, or beliefs

belief perseverance

the tendency to maintain one’s beliefs even when confronted with evidence that contradicts them.

cognitive dissonance

occurs when a person's behavior and beliefs do not complement each other or when they hold two contradictory beliefs. It causes a feeling of discomfort that can motivate people to try to feel better.

social influence theory

the idea that people are heavily influenced by the thoughts and actions of others.

peripheral route of persuasion

method of influencing attitudes and beliefs by appealing to superficial cues and emotions rather than logical arguments or deep processing. It relies on factors such as attractiveness, credibility, and emotional appeals.

central route of persuasion

a method of convincing others to take an action or make a decision based on facts and evidence of the merits of the outcome.

foot-in-the-door technique

persuasion tactic where someone is more likely to agree to a larger request after first agreeing to a smaller related request

door-in-the-face technique

a persuasive tactic of making a large request that a person will likely refuse in order to get the person to subsequently agree to a smaller request.

Collectivism

a worldview in which social behavior is guided largely by goals that are shared by a collective, such as a family, tribe, work group, or political or religious association.

group polarization

the idea that groups tend to make decisions that are more extreme compared to the original thoughts of individual group members.

diffusion of responsibility

occurs when people who need to make a decision wait for someone else to act instead (particularly in a group setting)

deindividuation

the psychological state of losing one's sense of individual identity within a group or crowd

social facilitation

a psychological phenomenon where individuals perform better on tasks when they are observed by others

industrial-organizational psychology

the study of human behavior in the workplace, focusing on how to improve organizational effectiveness and employee well-being.

altruism

acting to help others, even if it means a personal cost or disadvantage to you

social reciprocity norm

a social rule that maintains, among other things, that people should return favors and other acts of kindness

bystander effect

a phenomenon in psychology where individuals are less likely to provide help in an emergency situation when there are other people present

displacement

a defense mechanism in which a person redirects an emotional reaction from the rightful recipient onto another person or object. For example, if a manager screams at an employee, the employee doesn't scream back—but he may yell at his spouse later that night.

projection

a defense mechanism where someone unconsciously attributes their own negative thoughts, feelings, or traits to another person or group,

rationalization

a defense mechanism where someone justifies their actions, thoughts, or feelings with seemingly logical reasons, even if those reasons are not the true underlying causes, to avoid facing uncomfortable truths or feelings.

reaction formation

defense mechanism in which people express the opposite of their true feelings, sometimes to an exaggerated extent. For instance, a man who feels insecure about his masculinity might act overly aggressive.

regression

a defense mechanism in which people seem to return to an earlier developmental stage. This tends to occur around periods of stress—for example, an overwhelmed child may revert to bedwetting or thumb-sucking.

repression

the mind pushes unacceptable or painful thoughts, feelings, or memories into the unconscious, thus preventing them from entering conscious awareness

sublimation

a defense mechanism that involves channeling unwanted or unacceptable urges into an socially accepted or constructive activity (a way to express difficult feelings in a healthy way, like turning anger into sports or creative outlets. )

projective personality tests

psychological assessments where individuals are presented with ambiguous stimuli (like images or situations) and asked to interpret them

unconditonal regard

refers to accepting and respecting another person, regardless of their behavior or the choices they make

reciprocal determinism

continuous loop showing how our thoughts, behaviors, and environments all influence one anothe

self-efficacy

a person's belief in their ability to successfully accomplish a task or achieve a goal

big five theory

a psychological theory that describes personality using five broad dimensions: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

a model of the relationship between stress and task performance. It proposes that you reach your peak level of performance with an intermediate level of stress, or arousal.

intrinsic motivation

the internal drive to engage in an activity because it is personally rewarding or satisfying, rather than for external rewards like money or praise. It's the feeling of enjoyment, interest, or pleasure that comes from doing something, even without external incentives.

extrinsic motivation

engaging in an activity or behavior because of external rewards, punishments, or expectations (praise, money)

satiety

a psychological state of fullness and satisfaction after consuming food

facial-feedback hypothesis

suggests that our facial expressions can influence our emotional experiences.

cognitive appraisal

where individuals evaluate and interpret the significance of events or situations in their lives. This evaluation influences their emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in response to these events.

display rules

the social and cultural norms that govern how and when emotions are expressed.