Social Psych Midterm 1

social psychology

the scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals in social situations

Power of Situation

our thoughts, feelings, and actions are shaped heavily by our immediate social environment and the presence of other people

Dispositions

Internal factors, such as beliefs, values, personality traits, and abilities, that guide a person's behavior.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behavior, along with the corresponding tendency to overemphasize the importance of dispositions on behavior.

Channel Factors

explain why certain circumstances that seem unimportant can have great consequences for behavior, either facilitating it or blocking it. Circumstances can guide behavior in a particular direction by making it easier to follow one path rather than another.

AKA "nudges": Small, innocuous-seeming prompts that can have big effects on behavior Ex: Employees must check a box or sign a statement if they don't want the retirement plan; otherwise, they are automatically enrolled. More people enrolled in retirement plans bc more cognitive work to check the box, default option reduces cognitive load.

Gestalt Psychology

The idea that objects are perceived not by means of some passive and unbiased perception of objective reality but by active nonconscious interpretation of what the object represents

• ex: reading a sentence such as seeing "W_nderful d_y!" and automatically understanding it as "Wonderful day”, the human brain naturally perceives organized wholes rather than isolated parts

Types and functions of nonconscious processing

Nonconscious processing: Cognitive activity we are unaware of, affects our beliefs and behaviors and influenced by various factors, including words, sights, and sounds We are often unaware of the stimulus we are even responding to Ex: Exp where people presented words on a screen for 1/10th of a second and words either hostile or neutral, people didn't even process they saw them but the words influenced if they construed a man in a story, whose behavior was ambiguous, to being more hostile or not

Nonconscious processing function

Efficiency Much faster and can operate in parallel VS conscious processing Ex: Recognizing a face by looking at all features holistically in a second Ex: Driving a ca

Natural Selection

An evolutionary process that molds animals and plants so that traits that enhance the probability of survival and reproduction are passed on to subsequent generations.

naturalistic fallacy

The claim that the way things are is the way they should be.

Social Neuroscience

Social psychologists have begun to examine the biological grounding for behavior: the brain. Studies how biological systems like the brain, hormones, and genes implement social processes and behavior

Independent vs. interdependent (individualistic vs. collectivistic cultures)

independent (individualistic) culture: A culture in which people tend to think of themselves as distinct social entities, tied to each other by voluntary bonds of affection and organizational memberships but essentially separate from other people and having attributes that exist in the absence of any connection to others. interdependent (collectivistic) culture: A culture in which people tend to define themselves as part of a collective, inextricably tied to others in their group and placing less importance on individual freedom or personal control over their lives.

Tight versus loose culture

How strictly norms are enforced (tight = norms are well defined and homogenous and ppl do whats expected of them; loose = norms are unclear or not well-enforced) Tight, interdependent culture: Everyone is this way Ex: Germany and China Loose, interdependent culture: Ppl tend to be interdependent but expectations unclear Ex: Australia and US Tight private school VS Loose public school

Culture and Gender Roles

• Male dominance is variable in gender roles around the world

• Sexual relations deemed normal vary around the world -> Debated if the norms have economic or practical roots in social science

• Gender Research shows men and women differ in how they understand themselves, motivations, emotions There are also differences in how gender is constructed across cultures  Native America "two-spirit" people -> Distinct gender neither female nor male

WEIRD samples

WHITE EDUCATED INDUSTRIAL RICH DEMOCRATIC Issues for generalizability of social psych findings

Highsight Bias

Tendency to see events as predictable AFTER they already happened

• ex: Mom said she KNEW you'd trip if you didn't listen to her and tied your shoelaces

Hypothesis

testable prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances

Theory

set of related propositions describing some phenomenon/part of the world

• ex: Theory of gravity - explains why things fall

Observational Research

systematically watch/record behavior in a natural setting

• ex: Darwin's finches (just watched them - he didn't change any variables to "induce" evolution)

Archival Research

analyzing existing records and documents

• ex: Look at old census data to see how populations changed over time

Survey Research

Ask Questions (interview or questionnaire)

Correlational Research

Relationship between 2 variables (WITHOUT manipulating them)

• ex: Correlation between ice cream sales + sunburns(not saying 1 causes the other)

Random Sample

Randomly select people (Gives everyone in the pop. a fair chance of being chosen) ex: every 20th person

Convenience Sample

selecting people because they are easy to reach/available ex: only selecting kindergarteners

Reverse Causation

We don't know which one causes which (could be other way around) ex: Correlation between: Depression + lack of sleep Claim that: "lack of sleep CAUSES depression" Reality: Depression could be making it harder to sleep

Third Variable

An outside variable that better explains the relationship between the two other variables : 2 variables (IV + DV) + 1 extra ex: Correlation between: Drownings + ice cream sold 3rd variable: The weather (on hot days, more people swim and buy ice cream)

Self Selection

situation in which the participant, rather than the researcher, determines the participant's level of each variable, thereby creating the problem that unknown other properties might be responsible for the observed relationship. In effect, the participants have "chosen" their level on all variables--those that are measured and those that aren't Ex: Whether the participant grew up in poverty or opulence, has an IQ of 100 or 130, or follows the teachings of Jesus, Muhammad, or Buddha. Ex: How many hours per day they spend playing video games or whether or not they are married

Experimental Research

Scientific method used to discover cause-and-effect relationships regarding how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by other people

longitudinal study

research design where researchers repeatedly measure the same variables or people over an extended period

Independent Variable

the cause,the specific factor that the researcher manipulates or controls

Dependent variable

the effect, the outcome or behavior that gets measured to see if it changed. It "depends" on the independent variable

Control Condition

an experimental setup where the independent variable is not manipulated or treated. It serves as a baseline or point of comparison. Everything in this group stays exactly the same as the experimental group, except the key factor being tested is left out or held constant

Natural Experiment

research design where a scientist studies the impact of a real-world, naturally occurring event or policy change on human behavior, rather than manipulating an independent variable themselves ex: Researchers studied the effect of public smoking bans on heart attacks by comparing hospital admissions in towns with a ban (treatment) to nearby towns without one

external validity

how well the results of a study generalize to contexts outside the conditions of the laboratory

Field experiment

An experiment conducted in the real world, usually with participants who are not aware they are in a study of any kind Ex: marine biologist observing fish behavior and migration patterns

Internal Validity

In experimental research, confidence that only the manipulated variable could have produced the results

Reliability

The degree to which the particular way researchers measure a given variable is likely to yield consistent results

Measurement Validity

the correlation between some measure and some outcome the measure is supposed to predict

Statistical Significance

a measure of the probability that a given result could have occurred by chance

open science

practices such as sharing data and research materials with anyone in the broader scientific community in an effort to increase the integrity and replicability of scientific research

institutional review board

A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology.

Informed Consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Deception Research

research in which the participants are misled about the purpose of the research or the meaning of something that is done to them

Applied science

science or research concerned with solving important real-world problems

Basic science

science or research concerned with trying to understand some phenomenon in its own right

Intervention

an effort to change a person's behavior

Social Cognition

the study of how people think about the social world and arrive at judgments that help them interpret the past, present, and future

Snap Judgements

 Inferring Personality from physical appearance 

• Adults with baby faces are judged to be relatively weak, naive, and submissive, they receive more favorable treatment 

Casual Attribution

Our judgments are based on the meaning we assign to the behavior we witness, whether someone else's or our own.

• Is behavior the product of something within the person or a reflection of something about the context or circumstances surrounding the behavior

  • Eg.: you got a good score because you're smart (internal cause) or bcs of easy grading (external cause)

Covariation Principle

We try to determine what causes “covary” with what we're trying to explain

• What internal or external, characteristic of the person in question are applicable to nearly everyone

  • Consensus: refers to what most people would do in a given situation.

  • Distinctiveness: refers to what an individual does in different situations.

Discounting Principle

our confidence that a particular cause is responsible for a given outcome will be reduced (discounted) if there are other plausible causes that might have produced the same outcome

Counterfactual thinking and discounting principle

considerations of what might have, could have, or should have happened "if only" a few minor things were done differently

Emotional Amplification

The emotional reaction tends to be more intense if the event almost didn't happen

• Winning bronze medal vs winning silver. 

  • The one who won silver seems unhappy, it's likely that she’s thinking how close she was to gaining gold. The one who won bronze seems happy, she could be thinking that at least she didn’t fail.

Self-Serving attributional bias

People are inclined to attribute their failures and other bad events to external circumstances but to attribute their successes and other good events to themselves

• Bad grade score vs good grade

  • If you get a bad grade - professor’s fault, situational effects 

  • Good grade: your effort

(similar to actor- oberservant but this focuses on outcomes (success vs failure) and focuses on self only, no more people

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

Attributing behavior to personal characteristics even when powerful situational forces are at play.

• This tendency is more pronounced when people explain others' behavior than when they explain their own

Actor-observer difference in attributions

• Actor: you're usually more interested in determining what kind of  situation you're dealing with than assessing what kind of person you are.

• Observer: You're one primarily interested in determining what kind of person you're dealing with

Culture and Attribution (attention to context, proneness to FAE)

Western (individualistic) cultures tend to emphasize personal responsibility and are more prone to FAE, whereas Eastern (collectivistic) cultures are more likely to consider situational factors and pay greater attention to context.

• ex: Choi & Nisbett (1998)

Gestalt Psychology

• A psychological approach that stresses the fact that people's perception of objects involves active, usually nonconscious interpretation of what the object represents as a whole. 

• It focuses on how people perceive and organize sensory information into meaningful patterns and configurations, arguing that the mind actively shapes how we see the world.

Construal

• How we interpret situations and behavior, and how we make inferences, often nonconscious, about the contexts and the people we are encountering

• Said in another way: The way in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret (often nonconsciously) the social world. This involves how we mentally construct and make sense of experiences, people, and situations, which can differ from one person to another.

Schema

• A mental structure or framework that helps people organize and interpret information. 

• These are built from past experiences and guide our understanding of new situations, allowing us to quickly make sense of the world, but they can also lead to biases or stereotypes.

Stereotype

• A generalized belief or expectation about a group of people, often based on oversimplified or exaggerated characteristics. 

• They can shape our perceptions and behaviors toward individuals within that group, often leading to unfair judgments.

Automatic vs. Controlled processing

• Automatic processing refers to quick, unconscious, and effortless mental activities that don't require much cognitive energy (e.g., recognizing familiar faces, driving a familiar route).

• Controlled processing involves deliberate, conscious, and effortful thought processes, typically used for tasks that require attention and careful thinking (e.g., solving a math problem or learning something new).

Gender and Attribution

• Research suggests that men are more likely to attribute success to internal factors (ability), while women are more likely to attribute it to external factors (luck or help from others).

• Men and boys are more likely than women and girls to attribute their failures to lack of effort, and women and girls are more likely than boys to attribute their failures to lack of ability

  • Esp for math and science performance

• Difference results in part from teachers' feedback patterns in elementary school classrooms 

  • Girls get criticism directed at intellectual inadequacies 

  • Boys get criticism from nonintellectual factors

Order Effects (primacy and recency)

• The influence that the sequence in which information is presented has on perception. 

• Primacy effect refers to the tendency to remember information presented first

• Recency effect refers to the tendency to remember the information presented last.

Framing effects (spin, positive/negative)

• How information is presented can influence decisions and judgments. 

• Spin framing involves presenting information in a way that emphasizes a particular point. 

• Positive/negative framing refers to framing the same information in a more favorable or unfavorable light.

Temporal framing

• The influence of time perspective on how we evaluate events or decisions. 

• Events that are closer in time are seen as more concrete, while distant events are perceived as more abstract.

Construal Level Theory

The theory that the psychological distance of events (temporal, spatial, or hypothetical) affects how abstract or concrete we perceive them. Distant events are thought of in abstract terms, while closer events are thought of in more concrete terms.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one’s pre-existing beliefs.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.

Motivated Confirmation bias

A type of confirmation bias where people actively seek out information that supports their desires or pre-existing beliefs, while ignoring information that contradicts them.

Bottom-up and top-down processing

• Bottom-up: "Data-driven" mental processing, in which an individual forms conclusions based on the stimuli encountered in the environment, a form of controlled thinking

• Top-down: "Schema-driven" mental processing, in which an individual filters and interprets new information in light of preexisting knowledge and expectations, a form of automatic thinking

Influence of schemas (attention, memory, construal, behavior)

Mental frameworks that influence what we pay attention to, how we interpret and remember events, and even how we behave in different situations.

Priming

The process by which exposure to certain stimuli or events influences subsequent thoughts or behaviors, often unconsciously.

Consciousness of activation of schemas

The degree to which we are aware that a schema has been activated. Often, schemas are activated unconsciously.

Subliminal Stimuli

Stimuli that are presented below the threshold of conscious awareness but can still influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Recent vs. frequent activation (chronic accessibility)

• Recent: A schema can be temporarily activated by a recent experience or event. This type of activation of a schema tends to be short-term and context-dependent. It can shape our immediate reactions or judgments, but its influence fades over time.

• Frequent: A schema becomes chronically accessible when it is activated consistently over time, either because of repeated exposure or because it is personally important or relevant. Chronically accessible schemas are more enduring and consistently influence a person’s thinking and behavior.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making and judgments, often at the cost of accuracy.

Availibity heuristic

• Often used to make judgements about the frequency or quantity of events or how likely it is that an event will take place. 

• Can lead to faulty conclusions because what's easiest to recall is not reflective of the overall picture.

Fluency

• The ease with which information is processed. Information that is more fluent (easy to process) is often perceived as more truthful or likable.

• Some stimuli easier to process like clear images

• Subjective experience of fluency, much like the subjective sense of availability, influences all sorts of judgments people make 

  • Ex: Fluent objects to be more prototypical members of their categories, and common adages that rhyme to be more valid and truthful

• Fluency influences how people process information

  • A feeling of disfluency while processing information leads people to take something of a "slow down, be careful" approach to making judgments and decisions

Representativeness heuristic

The tendency to judge the likelihood of something based on how closely it matches a typical case or stereotype, often ignoring base-rate information.

Base-rate information

Info about the frequency of members of different categories in the population (often underused when people use heuristics to make quick decisions)

Illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists, often due to the cognitive biases of associating certain events or patterns.

Regression effect

• The statistical phenomenon where extreme values tend to return toward the mean on subsequent measurements.

• The less correlated the two variables, the larger the effect of regression to the mean.

Anchoring and adjustment

Mental shortcut whereby people make judgment by using a reference point, “an anchor”, and make adjustments from their to reach an estimate (often insufficiently)

Regression fallacy

The incorrect belief that a change in a variable is caused by something when, in reality, it is simply a result of regression to the mean.

• ex: An athlete has an amazing game, lands on a magazine cover, and then plays poorly next week. Observers blame a "magazine curse" instead of a natural return to typical skill levels

What makes social psychology distinct from sociology?

Social psych focuses on individuals in social contexts; sociology focuses on groups/societal variables

Social psychology vs. personality psychology:key difference?

Social psych emphasizes social/situational factors; personality psych emphasizes individual differences

Social psych vs. clinical psych: key difference?

clinical psych focuses on psychological disorders and treatment; social psych studies social influence

What does it mean that people “construct reality”?

Behavior depends on how people construe or interpret a social situation, not just the objective situation

Why is social influence described as pervasive and often invisible?

Social contexts and norms can influence us automatically, even when we do not notice the influence.

What are 3 major motivational principles in social psych?

• understanding/ control

• feelding good about me and mine

• connection/belonging

Why do people have a need for understanding and control?

We want the world to make sense so we can predict outcomes and feel some control over them

What does the need to feel good about “me and mine” motivate?

Protecting positive views of ourselves and groups we identify with

What information does a correlation provide?

The direction and strength of the relationship between two measured variable

How do you determine the strength of a correlation?

The closer r is to +1 or -1, the stonger the relationship; near 0 means weaker

Why can’t a correlation establish causation?

It cannot rule out reverse causality or a third variable causing both variablesW

What is a reverse-causality problem?

We cannot determine whether X causes Y or Y causes X from their correlation

What is a third variable problem?

An unmeasured variable A may cause both X and Y, producing their observed relationship