Motor Skills Exam 1

Motor control 

How the skeletal system and muscles are related and move together. “functions”

Motor learning 

The process of changes due to practice or learning, leading to improvements in motor skills. “changes”

Motor development

• About age-related changes and functions 

• Human developmental issues related to either motor control or motor learning 

Motor skill is characterized by what three things

• Action goal 

• Voluntary performance 

• Requires movement of body, head, and/or limbs to achieve the action goal 

Non-voluntary movement is not a motor skill and is instead a ________

reflex

How do we classify motor skills via the task approach/task organization?

Skills are classified based on where they fall in one of three dimensions:

1. Open-closed

2. Discrete-continuous

3. Motor-cognitive

Open-closed dimension

• Classification of task based on environment

• “Open” end of the spectrum = unpredictable enviornmental conditions

• “Closed” end of the spectrum = predictable enviornment with little changes

Discrete-continuous dimension

• Classification based on how movements perform a task

• “Discrete” end of the spectrum = single movement with well-defined end and beginning

• “Continuous” end of the spectrum = no defined beginning or end

• “Serial skill” = between discrete and continuous; refers to several discrete task strung together

How would you classify tying a knot in the discrete-continuous dimension

serial skill— several steps strung together to achieve knot

Motor-cognitive dimension

• Reflects the mental activity involved in preparing for and producing skilled actions

• “Motor” end is characterized by skillful performance that doesn’t require much thinking

• “Cognitive” end is characterized by skilled performance that requires considerable engagement and attentional focus

• In the middle of motor and cognitive is “psychomotor”

• “Psychomotor” = a need for both mental engagement and effortful actions

Gentile’s two dimensions taxonomy (1987)

• Focuses on two dimensions:

  • What is the environmental context in which the person performs the skill?

    • Regulatory conditions (stationary or in motion)

    • Is there intertrial variability?

  • What function of the action characterizes the motor skill?

    • Aim to move body orientation?

    • Is object manipulation part of the action goal?

How many skill categories does Gentile’s 2D taxonomy create?

16 — gets more complex diagonally from 1A to 4D

What are the three stages of skill acquisition?

Cognitive, associative, autonomous

What is a theory?

A theory accurately describes a large class of observations and makes definite, testable predictions about future (unobserved) observations.

What can happen to a theory when experimental evidence contradicts its predictions?

The theory can be disproved by experimental evidence.

What is Motor Control Theory?

A theory that describes and explains how the nervous system produces coordinated movement of motor skills in a variety of environments.

What is top-down control?

Control in which higher levels give orders to lower levels; in movement, the brain gives commands to the muscles to produce a response.

What is bottom-up feedback?

Feedback in which information from lower levels is sent back to higher levels.

Which type of control is represented by the brain giving orders to the muscles?

Top-down control.

Which type of feedback is represented by sensory information traveling from receptors through the spinal cord to the brain?

Bottom-up feedback.

What are the three main stages of top-down control?

Stimulus identification, response selection, and response programming.

What are the three basic steps of bottom-up feedback?

Receive tactile information, process the information in the brain, and make a decision.

What is a closed-loop model of motor control?

A model in which feedback is available during movement and is used to continue, adjust/correct, and terminate the movement.

What conditions favor a closed-loop model?

There must be enough time to plan and perform the response, enough time to adjust an ongoing movement, and feedback must be available during the movement.

In a closed-loop model, how much information does the control center initially provide to the effectors?

Information sufficient only to initiate the movement; feedback is then used to continue and terminate it.

Which model is illustrated by maintaining balance while standing on one leg?

The closed-loop model, because sensory feedback can be used to continually adjust the movement.

What is an open-loop model of motor control?

A model in which movement instructions are determined in advance, no feedback is used during the movement, and the control center provides all information needed to carry out the movement.

Why is an open-loop model appropriate for a very rapid movement such as a boxer’s punch?

The movement is so fast that there is not enough time to use feedback to adjust the movement after it begins.

In an open-loop model, when are the movement instructions determined?

In advance, before the movement begins.

Which model does NOT use feedback during the movement?

The open-loop model.

Which model relies on feedback to continue and terminate a movement?

The closed-loop model.

What is a monosynaptic reflex?

A reflex with a single synapse connecting a sensory neuron and a motor neuron.

What is the latency of a monosynaptic (M1) reflex?

Approximately 30–50 ms.

What is a classic example of a monosynaptic reflex?

The knee-jerk reflex.

Why is a monosynaptic reflex faster than a polysynaptic reflex?

It has only one synapse and does not require an interneuron between the sensory and motor neurons.

What is a polysynaptic reflex?

A reflex involving one or more interneurons, resulting in two or more synapses.

What is the latency of a polysynaptic (M2) reflex?

Approximately 50–80 ms.

What is an example of a polysynaptic reflex?

Pulling the hand away after touching something hot or another harmful stimulus.

Why is a polysynaptic reflex slightly slower than a monosynaptic reflex?

It contains one or more interneurons and two or more synapses, producing additional processing delay.

What is a triggered reaction?

A fast, pre-programmed reaction that uses a pre-structured motor program that can be flexibly adapted depending on context.

What is the latency of a triggered reaction?

Approximately 80–120 ms.

What is an example of a triggered reaction?

Tightening your grip when a wine glass begins to slip from your hand.

Is a triggered reaction elicited or emitted?

Elicited; it is triggered by a stimulus.

Does a triggered reaction use a motor program?

Yes. It uses a pre-structured motor program that can be flexibly adapted to context.

What is a voluntary reaction (M3)?

A conscious, voluntary response involving cortical processing, attention, and decision making.

What is the latency of a voluntary reaction (M3)?

Approximately 120–180+ ms.

What is an example of a voluntary (M3) reaction?

Responding to a traffic light or the starting pistol in a race.

Is a voluntary reaction elicited or emitted?

Emitted; it involves conscious voluntary control rather than a simple reflexive response.

Does a voluntary reaction involve a motor program?

Yes.

Which response has the shortest latency: M1, M2, triggered, or M3?

M1 (monosynaptic reflex), approximately 30–50 ms.

Which response has a latency of 50–80 ms?

M2, the polysynaptic reflex.

Which response has a latency of 80–120 ms?

Triggered reaction.

Which response has a latency of 120–180+ ms?

M3, the voluntary reaction.

What is the correct latency order from fastest to slowest?

M1 monosynaptic reflex (30–50 ms) → M2 polysynaptic reflex (50–80 ms) → triggered reaction (80–120 ms) → M3 voluntary reaction (120–180+ ms).

What is latency?

The time delay between a stimulus and the beginning of the response/reaction.

What is proprioception?

The sensory system's detection and reception of movement and spatial position of the limbs, trunk, and head; it provides information from within the body.

Where do proprioceptive signals originate?

Proprioceptors located in muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints.

What are the main types of proprioceptors listed in the notes?

Muscle spindles, Golgi-tendon organs, and joint receptors.

What do muscle spindles detect?

Changes in muscle length (stretch) and the velocity of the stretch.

Where are muscle spindles located?

Within most skeletal muscles, distributed throughout the muscles.

What type of receptor is a muscle spindle?

A mechanoreceptor.

What movement characteristics can muscle spindles provide information about?

Position, direction, and velocity of movement.

What are muscle spindles involved in?

Reflexes and voluntary movements.

What do Golgi-tendon organs primarily detect?

Changes in muscle tension, especially associated with muscle contraction/shortening.

Where are Golgi-tendon organs located?

In skeletal muscles near the insertion of the tendon.

Are Golgi-tendon organs good at detecting changes in muscle length?

No. They primarily detect changes in muscle tension, although they can also detect muscle length changes.

What do joint receptors detect?

Changes in force and rotation, as well as changes in joint movement and movement angle.

Where are joint receptors located?

In joint capsules and ligaments.

What is exteroception?

Sensation of information from outside the body.

What senses are included in exteroception?

Sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell.

What is a motor program?

A plan specifying which muscles are selected, the sequence in which they are activated, and the timing of their activation.

What does a motor program specify about muscle selection?

What muscles to activate.

What does a motor program specify about muscle activation?

The sequence and timing of muscle activation.

What is Dynamic Systems Theory?

A theory stating that human movements are influenced by individual, environmental, and task constraints.

What are individual constraints in Dynamic Systems Theory?

Characteristics of the individual, such as body height, weight, neural maturity, and motivation.

What are environmental constraints in Dynamic Systems Theory?

Factors outside the individual, such as gravity, weather conditions, temperature, and surface texture.

What are task constraints in Dynamic Systems Theory?

The goals and rules of the task.

A person's height and motivation are examples of what type of constraint?

Individual constraints.

Gravity and surface texture are examples of what type of constraint?

Environmental constraints.

Task goals and rules are examples of what type of constraint?

Task constraints.

What is parallel processing?

The processing of multiple sources of sensory information simultaneously or in parallel.

What happens when visual and auditory information are received at the same time?

The brain processes the information in parallel and helps narrow down the relevant sources before task instruction and attentional processing.

What factors can inhibit or slow reaction time?

More response choices, inappropriate arousal level, low stimulus-response compatibility, limited attention, low stimulus intensity, age, and injury.

How does the number of response choices affect reaction time?

Increasing the number of response choices increases decision-making time and therefore increases reaction time.

What is stimulus-response compatibility?

The degree to which the spatial relationship between a stimulus and the required response is compatible; lower compatibility increases reaction time.

What happens to reaction time when stimulus-response compatibility decreases?

Reaction time increases.

How does low stimulus intensity affect reaction time?

Low stimulus intensity can slow reaction time.

What is Kahneman's attention theory regarding arousal?

The amount of attention resources available varies with arousal level, and the maximum resources are available when arousal is optimal for the situation.

What is the relationship between arousal and performance?

An inverted-U relationship: performance is highest at a moderate/optimal arousal level, while very low or very high arousal reduces performance.

What is meant by 'the zone'?

The optimal arousal level associated with the highest performance level.

How can very low arousal affect performance?

Very low arousal, such as being very tired, can reduce performance.

How can very high arousal affect performance?

Very high arousal, such as being overly nervous, can reduce performance.

What factors can improve reaction time?

Anticipation, sensory priming, greater stimulus intensity, optimal arousal, and practice/experience.

What is anticipation?

A prediction about an expected event.

What is temporal anticipation?

Predicting the onset or timing of a future event.

What is spatial anticipation?

Predicting the location of a future event.

What is sensory priming?

Repeated exposure to a particular stimulus causing it to be drawn into consciousness without guidance or intention.

How does stimulus intensity affect reaction time?

Stronger stimulus intensity generally produces faster/better reaction time.

Give examples of high-intensity stimuli that can improve reaction time.

A louder sound, bright flash, or sudden touch.

How do practice and experience affect reaction time?

Practice and experience can improve reaction time.